Chien C. Lee

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Interactions 71 images Created 10 Jun 2016

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  • Near the summit of Gunung Murud (Sarawak's highest mountain), an newly described species of tiny bush frog (Philautus nepenthophilus) hides within the fluid of a carnivorous pitcher plant (Nepenthes mollis), apparently unaffected by the plant's digestive juices therein. Phytotelmata (water bodies held by plants) provide living quarters and breeding grounds for many unique creatures which are completely dependent on them. Pulong Tau National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A Harlequin Gliding Frog (Rhacophorus pardalis) struggles futilely as it is being slowly swallowed alive by a Black-Headed Cat Snake (Boiga nigriceps). Stagnant pools of water in the Borneo rainforest serve as important breeding grounds for many tree frogs which gather around in great numbers, a fact that some predators wisely take advantage of. Kubah National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A Short-nosed Fruit Bat (Cynopterus brachyotis) swoops in to select a ripe fig (Ficus fistulosa) growing directly on the trunk of the tree. Rather than eating on the spot, the bat will carry the fig off to a favorite perch where it can dine in safety, thus helping to spread the tree's seeds. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • The bizarre bloom of a Rhizanthes (R. lowii) unfurls its odorous and sinister-looking petals. A member of the Rafflesia family, this rare plant is also completely parasitic, living within its host vine and possessing no leaves, stems, or roots of its own. Like the more well-known Rafflesia, the flowers mimic a rotting animal carcass to attract carrion flies as pollinators. Measuring perhaps 30cm across, the bloom is only open for a few days before dying. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Rather than being carnivorous, this unusual pitcher plant (Nepenthes lowii) derives its nutrition from the droppings of the Mountain Treeshrew (Tupaia montana). The animals are attracted to the plant's copious nectar secretions, and inevitably leave their scat in the pitchers which are designed like a natural toilet receptacle. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A miniature narrow-mouthed frog (Microhyla cf. borneensis) seeks the moist shelter within a carnivorous plant (Nepenthes bicalcarata) resting on the Borneo rainforest floor. Normally a deadly pitfall trap, this plant's pitcher has been chewed open on the side by a small mammal, probably in an attempt to feed on the trapped insects (or fluids) inside. Several species of Nepenthes such as this are used as tadpole nurseries for certain frogs, some of which will breed nowhere else. Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • World within: the watery chamber of a carnivorous pitcher plant (Nepenthes ampullaria) hosts a myriad of tiny specialized creatures. An amplexing pair of the Matang Narrow-mouthed Frog (Microhyla nepenthicola), one of the world’s smallest amphibians, has visited the plant to deposit their eggs – they will breed nowhere else. They are flanked by a developing tadpole and the pupa of a predatory Elephant Mosquito (Toxorhynchites sp.). The plant benefits from everything entering the pitcher: detritus falling from the canopy above, insect prey that are drowned inside, or small visiting organisms like these that may help to break down the contents and leave their waste behind. Kubah National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • The haunting hollow skeleton of a fly is all that remains after being consumed alive by a parasitoid fungi (Ophiocordyceps cf. dipterigena) in the New Guinean rainforest. Two different types of fruiting bodies have emerged from the fly's body: the dorsal 'mushrooms' (ascostroma) are perfectly positioned to release tiny spores on the fungi's next victim. The tropics hold a great diversity of these entomopathogenic fungi, with undoubtedly many undescribed species, each apparently tailored to target specific insect hosts. West Papua, Indonesia.
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  • A damselfly (Coenagrionidae) feeding on a pygmy grasshopper (Tetrigidae) which it has caught during flight. Papua, Indonesia (New Guinea).
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  • In the insect world, even having a vicious sting isn’t enough to always save you from some larger predators. Here, in the dry spiny forest of southern Madagascar, a wasp has fallen prey to a giant robber fly (Microstylum sp.). With fast wings, excellent eyesight, and piercing mouthparts, robber flies catch other insects in mid flight and suck out their insides like a juice pack. Berenty Private Reserve, Amboasary, Madagascar.
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  • Unable to fly with a load many times her own weight, a female Thread-waisted Sand Wasp (Ammophila beniniensis) hauls a large caterpillar which she has paralyzed with her sting. She is seeking a burrow she has prepared in advance and, even though it may be a considerable distance away, she shows a remarkable orientation ability even though there may be numerous obstacles in her path. Once placed inside, with the burrow sealed shut by small rocks and its entrance hidden from potential thieves, the ill-fated caterpillar will serve as live food for the single egg the wasp has deposited along with it. Fianarantsoa, Madagascar.
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  • Although the blooms of this rare mangrove tree (Pelliciera rhizophorae) are visited by hummingbirds in the day, the flowers remain open at night and exude a strong musty odor to attract an entirely different animal. Captured by an infrared camera trigger, a Leaf-nosed Bat (Glossophaga soricina) approaches an open flower to partake of the rich source of nectar. Nectar-feeding bats are common in the tropics and are responsible for the pollination of a great number of tree species. Choco, Colombia.
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  • Huntsman spider (Sparassidae) preying on a young Madagascar day gecko (Phelsuma parva). Tomasina, Madagascar.
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  • Goodman's Mouse Lemur (Microcebus lehilahytsara), feeding on the nectar of night-blooming Dombeya flowers. Andasibe, Madagascar.
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  • A Giant Forest Ant (Dinomyrmex gigas) receives a droplet of sweet honeydew from the abdomen of a juvenile leaf-footed bug (Notobitus sp.). The bugs, which obtain more sugar than they need from the plant juices they feed on, are fiercely guarded by the ants in return. Mutually beneficial trophobiotic relationships such as this are very advantageous in the competitive ecosystem of the rainforest. Danum Valley Conservation Area, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • After quickly selecting a ripe fig (Ficus fistulosa), a Short-nosed Fruit Bat (Cynopterus brachyotis) makes off with her prize to dine some distance away at a safe perch, thereby helping to disperse the tree's seeds that will ultimately lead to fruit for her future generations. Figs reach their pinnacle of diversity in Borneo with at least 150 species and, perhaps more than any other group of plants, are considered keystone species of the rainforest because of the complex interdependences they exhibit with countless animals and insects. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Just a few millimeters in length, a tiny froglet (Microhyla nepenthicola) makes its first climb out of the watery chamber of the pitcher plant in which it was born. This species is exclusively reliant on pitcher plants for depositing their eggs. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Nectar-feeding bats play an essential role in the pollination of many rainforest trees. Here, a Long-tongued Nectar Bat (Macroglossus minimus) arrives at the night-blooming blossoms of a durian tree (Durio zibethinus). Prized for its delectable aromatic fruit, the productivity of many durian plantations is under threat where the native bat populations have been killed off by hunters. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A potter wasp (Omicroides singularis) returns to her nest with a paralyzed caterpillar. Each perfectly crafted urn will be filled with a dozen or so caterpillars before she deposits a single egg and seals the entrance. The developing wasp larvae will feed on the caterpillars before pupating and emerging as an adult. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Hardwicke's Woolly Bat (Kerivoula hardwickii) at a pitcher of Nepenthes hemsleyana (N. baramensis) where it roosts. Belait, Brunei Darussalam (Borneo).
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  • Like most snail-eating snakes, the Blunt-headed Tree Snake (Aplopeltura boa) is small and slender with an abnormally large head. They posses an asymmetric arrangement of teeth in their lower jaw which enables them to pry snails from their shells (most of which swirl in a clockwise direction) by a process referred to as "mandible walking". Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • With his crop full of food and water, a male Plain-pouched Hornbill (Rhyticeros subruficollis) returns to his nest in the cavity of a tree wherein the female waits sealed inside. During the nesting period, which can last several months, his mate will be completely dependent on his regular visits to provide her with everything she needs while she incubates the young and raises the chicks. Unfortunately, his duties on this day have been complicated by the annoying attentions of a Greater Racket-tailed Drongo (Dicrurus paradiseus) which has perhaps also been nesting nearby. Although much smaller than the hornbill, drongos are known for their bold and aggressive behavior, especially towards other birds that could be potential predators of their nests. Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand.
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  • ore than just a death trap: the watery chamber of this carnivorous pitcher plant (Nepenthes ampullaria) in the Borneo rainforest is home to a brood of tiny tadpoles. One of the world's smallest frogs (Microhyla nepenthicola), this species will lay its eggs nowhere else, making them completely dependent on the plants. Here, the tadpoles grow in relative safety, except when they are faced with other water-dwelling predators including huge carnivorous mosquitoes. After several weeks they will mature into tiny froglets and make their escape from the pitcher. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A bush frog (Philautus amoenus) emerges from it's watery shelter in the pitcher of Nepenthes × harryana. Mount Kinabalu. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Bush frog (Philautus nepenthophilus) in pitcher plant (Nepenthes mollis). Pulong Tau National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • The size of your gun doesn’t matter when you’re outnumbered. Although in possession of one of the most powerful stings of all insects, this giant Bullet Ant (Paraponera clavata) is easily overcome by far smaller leafcutter ants (Atta cephalotes) after it inadvertently wandered too close to their nest. Leafcutters are not predatory, but their sharp mandibles, which are designed for slicing leaves, are so powerful that they make quick work of the intruder, dismembering it in a matter of minutes. Limón, Costa Rica.
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  • Although the ‘zombie ants’ are undoubtedly the most infamous, entomopathogenic fungi come in a great diversity of species, many of which specialize in a particular type of prey. Here, a weevil has been killed by Ophiocordyceps curculionum, and is now a host to three fruiting bodies that have been releasing new spores. Like the mind-controlling fungi in ants, this pathogen similarly manipulates the weevil like a puppeteer to position itself in the ideal spot before it dies. Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.
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  • The dreaded Bullet Ant (Paraponera clavata), in possession of the most painful sting on the planet, here has fallen prey to an even more sinister organism: a parasitoid fungus (Ophiocordycipitaceae). The ‘zombification’ of insects in tropical rainforests has been well documented, but the incredibly precise way that these fungi control the behavior of their hosts prior to consuming them is not yet fully understood. Recent research indicates that, rather than invading the brain which might kill the insect prematurely, the fungus may directly control the muscles of its host like a puppet. In this way it can lead the ant to a location where it is more likely to infect others. Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.
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  • A huntsman spider preying on a damselfly (Vestalis sp.). Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Miniature hitchhiker: a tiny pseudoscorpion catches a ride on the leg of a mite (itself only a few millimeters in size). Distant relatives of scorpions, pseudoscorpions lack a stinging tail, instead some are capable of delivering poison through their oversized pincers. They prey on even tinier invertebrates and are often found among decaying leaf litter or rotten wood. Many species utilize other creatures for rapid transport (phoresis): some ride beetles or flies and even one species has been found hitchhiking on bats. Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • With over 700 described species, the ant diversity of Borneo is extraordinarily rich. Although many ants defend themselves with toxic compounds or painful stings, some such as this species (Meranoplus mucronatus) are protected by sharp spines to deter predators. This group of workers is attending to a herd of extremely small planthopper nymphs, from which they take secreted honeydew. Deramakot Forest Reserve, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • With highly toxic chemical defenses ranging from benzoquinones to cyanide compounds, millipedes are generally avoided by most predators. However, in nature no matter how well protected you are, everyone has their Achilles' heel. In this case we have the Ectrichodiinid bugs, better known as ' Millipede Assassins'. These specialized hunters feed exclusively on millipedes, stabbing them with a stout proboscis, immobilizing them with venom, and are undeterred by their prey's thick armor and toxins. It is suspected that some species may actually be able to sequester the chemicals of the millipede to incorporate into their own defenses, but this remains to be studied. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Four-clawed Gecko (Gehyra mutilata) attending a lanternfly (Pyrops whiteheadi) for secreted honeydew. Host tree is Pometia pinnata. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • The complex ecosystem of the rainforest is filled with such a plethora of tiny hungry creatures that many predators may themselves become victims to something larger. Here, in the humid jungles of southern New Guinea, an unfortunate tree frog is being devoured by a large huntsman spider (family Sparassidae). With leg spans sometimes exceeding 15cm, these spiders spin no webs and instead rely on speed to catch their prey. South Papua, Indonesia (New Guinea).
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  • A butterfly caterpillar (Cupha erymanthis) standing guard over a clutch of parasitic wasp pupae that recently hatched from its body. Having been impregnated by eggs from a female wasp, the larvae develop within the caterpillar, consuming its flesh as they grow. In order to keep their host alive, the wasp larvae are careful to avoid all vital organs and the caterpillar thus appears and behaves rather normal until the larvae eventually emerge. In a similar vein to the mind-controlled zombie ants, the wasp larvae also secrete some cocktail of hormones that modify the behavior of the caterpillar, in this case it is induced to stand guard and protect the wasp pupae from predators or other parasitic wasps until it eventually dies of starvation. Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Fruit piercing moths (Eudocima phalonia) converge on a cluster of ripe figs (Ficus fistulosa) to feed on the sweet juice. Many moths in this family have similar feeding habits and can be damaging to commercial fruit crops. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A Red-bearded Bee-eater (Nyctyornis amictus) living up to its name: here with a large black carpenter bee (Xylocopa sp.) it has caught in mid-air. While most bee-eaters prefer open woodlands and forest edges, this species is unusual in that it is typically found deep within rainforest. Flashy colors in birds are often possessed only by the males and typically function as a means of advertising for a mate. However, in this species both males and females sport a bright red face, which suggests that the coloration may serve a different purpose. One theory is that this may serve to attract flower-feeding insects to venture closer for a look - a convenient way for the bird to catch an easy meal. Danum Valley, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A Long-tongued Nectar Bat (Macroglossus minimus) visits the flowers of a durian tree (Durio zibethinus) which open to release their nectar only at night. This bat, which is one of the smallest fruit bats, is an important pollinator of not only durian but many other forest trees. Danum Valley, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A tiny undescribed species of dwarf toad (Pelophryne sp.) perches on the lid of a carnivorous pitcher plant (Nepenthes villosa) high in the mossy forests of Mount Tambuyukon in northern Borneo. It is suspected that these toads and other amphibians utilize the water-filled pitchers in which to breed, but the remoteness of these locations makes this behavior difficult to study, and their exact relationship remains unconfirmed. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Within the chamber of a giant pitcher plant (Nepenthes rajah), an iridescent Elephant Mosquito (Toxorhynchites sp.) emerges from its pupal case. These large mosquitoes do not suck blood, feeding instead on flower nectar and plant sap. The larvae are voracious predators of aquatic insects, including the young of other mosquitoes. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Two male stag beetles (Cyclommatus montanellus magnificus) attempting to overpower one another using their formidable mandibles. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Harlequin Tree Frog (Rhacophorus pardalis).  A female making a foam nest on a small tree overhanging a breeding pond.  After depsiting her eggs they will be fertilized by the two accompanying smaller males. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • The smallest frog in Borneo at scarcely over 1 cm in length, a male Matang Narrow-mouthed Frog (Microhyla nepenthicola), perches on the lip of a pitcher plant (Nepenthes ampullaria) where he will entice a female to lay her eggs. These tiny frogs are so far known to breed only in the water-filled chambers of certain pitcher plants, and their small size may be an adaptation for this lifestyle. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • An infrared camera trap reveals a secretive nocturnal visitor to the giant pitchers of Nepenthes rajah. The Kinabalu Rat (Rattus baluensis) is known only from the upper slopes of Mount Kinabalu in northern Borneo. New research has confirmed that this rodent shares a similar mutualistic relationship with these pitcher plants as the Mountain Treeshrew (Tupaia montana), by obtaining sweet nectar in exchange for their nitrogen-rich droppings. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Mountain Treeshrew (Tupaia montana) feeding at Nepenthes rajah.  Recent research has shown the the world's largest pitcher plant Nepenthes rajah is not exclusively carnivorous. Like the related N. lowii, this species attracts treeshrews by secreting nectar on the undersurface of the lid. These animals frequently leave their droppings in the pitcher, which serves as a valuable nitrogen source in their impoverished mountain habitat. Mount Kinabalu National Park, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Leaf-cutter Ants (Atta laevigata) return to their nest carring sections of leaves which will be used to feed their underground fungus gardens. Canaima National Park, Venezuela.
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  • The Long-tongued Nectar Bat (Macroglossus minimus) is an important pollinator of many rainforest trees. Here it is feeding on the nectar of banana flowers. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • This unusual pitcher plant (Nepenthes lowii) derives its nutrition from the droppings of the Mountain Treeshrew (Tupaia montana). The animals are attracted to the plant's copious nectar secretions, and inevitably leave their scat in the pitchers which are designed like a natural toilet receptacle. Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • “Parasitoids” are defined as different from “parasites” in that they ultimately kill their host, and among the most nefarious of these are those that are able to manipulate the behavior of their host, keeping them alive only until they no longer need them. This unfortunate katydid is in the process of having a horsehair worm (Nematomorpha) vacate its body. Although the katydid is still alive, the worm has slowly devoured most of its internal organs while growing inside to many times the length of its host’s body. Even when fully developed, the worm keeps from killing the insect because it uses it for transport – somehow compelling the katydid to seek out a source of water where the worm can finally complete its life cycle. Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.
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  • A female pompilid wasp (Eragenia congrua) hauls a paralyzed spider (Corinna sp.) towards her nest, after having neatly amputated its legs to make the transport of her victim easier. This will not be food for her, but for her offspring. Her nest consists of a hole in the soft bark of a tree, and once depositing the spider inside she will lay a single egg, which upon hatching into a larva will consume the still-living host. Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.
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  • Colobopsis schmitzi ant on peristome of Nepenthes bicalcarata pitcher. Although these carnivorous plants trap most insects, this ant has a mutualistic relationship with the plant and is able to freely walk on the slippery surface. Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Lichen Huntsman Spider (Heteropoda boiei) with parasitic biting midges (Ceratopogonidae). Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • In one of the most ancient instances of monoculture, Macrotermes termites cultivate gardens of Termitomyces fungus as a form of external digestion, enabling the break down plant lignin for their consumption. Here, soldiers and nymphs of M. gilvus attend their fungus comb, found deep within their subterranean nest. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Few things exemplify the incredible complexity of rainforest ecosystems more than that of mutualisms between species. Here, a group of Giant Forest Ants (Dinomyrmex gigas) tend to a pair of lanternflies (Pyrops cultellatus), a relationship that has a net benefit for both species. The lanternflies, feeding directly from the phloem of the tree with their piercing straw-like mouthparts, harvest much more sugar-rich fluid than they actually need; the excess being excreted intermittently as a squirt of honeydew droplets from their abdomen. The ants position themselves directly behind and below the lanternflies and intercept these droplets with their heads, then consume the fluid and share it with their nestmates. In return, the ants guard the lanternflies and will ferociously attack any potential threat. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Bullet Ant (Paraponera clavata) killed by parasitoid fungi (Ophiocordyceps sp.). Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.
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  • With almost a sinister beauty, this garden of parasitoid fungus (possibly Akanthomyces) sprouts its fruiting bodies from the back of a moth it has killed. These release millions of microscopic spores which are dispersed into the surrounding area. When ingested by another insect they spell certain doom. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Lynx spider (Hamadruas superba) preying on plant bug (Alydidae). Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Fruit-piercing moth (Eudocima phalonia) using its stout proboscis to feed on the sweet juice of wild figs (Ficus fistulosa). Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A predatory Toxorhynchites mosquito emerges from the liquid in a pitcher of Nepenthes ampullaria. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A Golden Forest Ant (Polyrhachis ypsilon) has been killed by a parasitic Ophiocordyceps fungus which has consumed its body. Before dying, the behaviour of infected ants is controlled by the fungus, and are directed to climb to a suitable location usually on the underside of a leaf. There the fungus kills its host and produces fruiting bodies which releases spores to infect more ants below. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A pair of Bornean Gliding Frogs (Rhacophorus borneensis) in amplexus. Like other Rhacophorid tree frogs, the female will deposit a mass of eggs on a leaf overhanging a pool of water which are then fertilized by the male. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Sap-feeding bugs such as this lanternfly (Pyrops whiteheadi) ingest large quantities of the nutrient-poor fluid, excreting the excess in the form of honeydew. Here a gecko (Gehyra mutilata) waits below the insect for an opportunistic meal of the sweet fluid. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A robber fly (family Asilidae) killed by parasitic fungus (Ophiocordyceps dipterigena). This fungus specializes in feeding on adult flies. After consuming the interior of its host the cream-colored fruiting bodies emerge and release spores to infect new insects. North Sulawesi, Indonesia.
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  • Hardwicke's Woolly Bat (Kerivoula hardwickii) roosting in a pitcher of Nepenthes hemsleyana. Belait, Brunei Darussalam (Borneo).
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  • Scat of Mountain Treeshrew (Tupaia montana) on the peristome of Nepenthes rajah. This will be washed into the pitcher with rain where it becomes a vital source of nutrients for the plant. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Two Giant Forest Ants (Dinomyrmex gigas) from different colonies confront each other in a territorial dispute.  Rather than engage in full combat, this species usually resolves such conflict in a series of ritualistc fights. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • This small dung beetle (Paragymnopleurus maurus) is preparing a ball made from monkey droppings in which it will deposit its eggs and then bury. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • This large Huntsman spider (Gnathopalystes sp.) has captured a walking stick (Hermagoras hosei). Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Moth killed by Akanthomyces fungi. Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.
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  • Ants (Dolichoderus beccarii) protecting treehoppers from which they harvest honeydew. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Mating pair of stick insects (Staelonchodes sodalis) showing extreme dimorphism between male and female of the same species. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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