Chien C. Lee

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Mutualisms 30 images Created 19 Aug 2020

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  • Mutualisms between ants and treehoppers are so effective that sometimes multiple species can occur together on the same plant without conflicts. Here, a Myrmecaria ant worker tends to a short-horned Tricentrus sp., while an extravagantly adorned Pyrgauchenia biuni feeds nearby. Both of these treehoppers feed on the plant phloem, tapping into the stem with their proboscis, and secrete excess sugary fluid which the ants gather. In return the ants not only fiercely protect the treehoppers from predators, but sometimes also assist in distributing the young hoppers to suitable branches on the host stem. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Near the summit of Gunung Murud (Sarawak's highest mountain), an newly described species of tiny bush frog (Philautus nepenthophilus) hides within the fluid of a carnivorous pitcher plant (Nepenthes mollis), apparently unaffected by the plant's digestive juices therein. Phytotelmata (water bodies held by plants) provide living quarters and breeding grounds for many unique creatures which are completely dependent on them. Pulong Tau National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A Short-nosed Fruit Bat (Cynopterus brachyotis) swoops in to select a ripe fig (Ficus fistulosa) growing directly on the trunk of the tree. Rather than eating on the spot, the bat will carry the fig off to a favorite perch where it can dine in safety, thus helping to spread the tree's seeds. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A Hardwicke's Woolly Bat (Kerivoula hardwickii returns to its roost in a pitcher of Nepenthes hemsleyana. This recently discovered mutualism benefits both parties. The bats obtain a secure shelter safe from predators and rain, and the plants derive a significant portion of their nitrogen from the bat's droppings. Belait, Brunei Darussalam (Borneo).
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  • Rather than being carnivorous, this unusual pitcher plant (Nepenthes lowii) derives its nutrition from the droppings of the Mountain Treeshrew (Tupaia montana). The animals are attracted to the plant's copious nectar secretions, and inevitably leave their scat in the pitchers which are designed like a natural toilet receptacle. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A miniature narrow-mouthed frog (Microhyla cf. borneensis) seeks the moist shelter within a carnivorous plant (Nepenthes bicalcarata) resting on the Borneo rainforest floor. Normally a deadly pitfall trap, this plant's pitcher has been chewed open on the side by a small mammal, probably in an attempt to feed on the trapped insects (or fluids) inside. Several species of Nepenthes such as this are used as tadpole nurseries for certain frogs, some of which will breed nowhere else. Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • World within: the watery chamber of a carnivorous pitcher plant (Nepenthes ampullaria) hosts a myriad of tiny specialized creatures. An amplexing pair of the Matang Narrow-mouthed Frog (Microhyla nepenthicola), one of the world’s smallest amphibians, has visited the plant to deposit their eggs – they will breed nowhere else. They are flanked by a developing tadpole and the pupa of a predatory Elephant Mosquito (Toxorhynchites sp.). The plant benefits from everything entering the pitcher: detritus falling from the canopy above, insect prey that are drowned inside, or small visiting organisms like these that may help to break down the contents and leave their waste behind. Kubah National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A Giant Forest Ant (Dinomyrmex gigas) receives a droplet of sweet honeydew from the abdomen of a juvenile leaf-footed bug (Notobitus sp.). The bugs, which obtain more sugar than they need from the plant juices they feed on, are fiercely guarded by the ants in return. Mutually beneficial trophobiotic relationships such as this are very advantageous in the competitive ecosystem of the rainforest. Danum Valley Conservation Area, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • After quickly selecting a ripe fig (Ficus fistulosa), a Short-nosed Fruit Bat (Cynopterus brachyotis) makes off with her prize to dine some distance away at a safe perch, thereby helping to disperse the tree's seeds that will ultimately lead to fruit for her future generations. Figs reach their pinnacle of diversity in Borneo with at least 150 species and, perhaps more than any other group of plants, are considered keystone species of the rainforest because of the complex interdependences they exhibit with countless animals and insects. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Just a few millimeters in length, a tiny froglet (Microhyla nepenthicola) makes its first climb out of the watery chamber of the pitcher plant in which it was born. This species is exclusively reliant on pitcher plants for depositing their eggs. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • ore than just a death trap: the watery chamber of this carnivorous pitcher plant (Nepenthes ampullaria) in the Borneo rainforest is home to a brood of tiny tadpoles. One of the world's smallest frogs (Microhyla nepenthicola), this species will lay its eggs nowhere else, making them completely dependent on the plants. Here, the tadpoles grow in relative safety, except when they are faced with other water-dwelling predators including huge carnivorous mosquitoes. After several weeks they will mature into tiny froglets and make their escape from the pitcher. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Bush frog (Philautus nepenthophilus) in pitcher plant (Nepenthes mollis). Pulong Tau National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • With over 700 described species, the ant diversity of Borneo is extraordinarily rich. Although many ants defend themselves with toxic compounds or painful stings, some such as this species (Meranoplus mucronatus) are protected by sharp spines to deter predators. This group of workers is attending to a herd of extremely small planthopper nymphs, from which they take secreted honeydew. Deramakot Forest Reserve, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • With over 700 described species, the ant diversity of Borneo is extraordinarily rich. Although many ants defend themselves with toxic compounds or painful stings, some such as this species (Meranoplus mucronatus) are protected by sharp spines to deter predators. This group of workers is attending to a herd of extremely small planthopper nymphs, from which they take secreted honeydew. Deramakot Forest Reserve, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Platycerium madagascaeriense, one of the most bizarre endemic plants of Madagascar. Like other staghorn ferns, this species is strictly an epiphyte, growing among the canopy branches of tall trees. It is becoming increasingly rare and difficult to find in the wild because of widespread deforestation in the wet submontane forests of the east coast. The unusual ruffled texture of the shield fronds is probably an adaptation to allow passageways for ants to live underneath – a relationship that is mutually beneficial for both plant and insect. Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar.
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  • Bush frog (Philautus nepenthophilus) in pitcher plant (Nepenthes mollis). Pulong Tau National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • The smallest frog in Borneo at scarcely over 1 cm in length, a male Matang Narrow-mouthed Frog (Microhyla nepenthicola), perches on the lip of a pitcher plant (Nepenthes ampullaria) where he will entice a female to lay her eggs. These tiny frogs are so far known to breed only in the water-filled chambers of certain pitcher plants, and their small size may be an adaptation for this lifestyle. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • An infrared camera trap reveals a secretive nocturnal visitor to the giant pitchers of Nepenthes rajah. The Kinabalu Rat (Rattus baluensis) is known only from the upper slopes of Mount Kinabalu in northern Borneo. New research has confirmed that this rodent shares a similar mutualistic relationship with these pitcher plants as the Mountain Treeshrew (Tupaia montana), by obtaining sweet nectar in exchange for their nitrogen-rich droppings. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Mountain Treeshrew (Tupaia montana) feeding at Nepenthes rajah.  Recent research has shown the the world's largest pitcher plant Nepenthes rajah is not exclusively carnivorous. Like the related N. lowii, this species attracts treeshrews by secreting nectar on the undersurface of the lid. These animals frequently leave their droppings in the pitcher, which serves as a valuable nitrogen source in their impoverished mountain habitat. Mount Kinabalu National Park, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A cockroach (Allacta sp.) attending to a Cixiid planthopper (Singabenna praestans), waiting for honeydew secretions. Bako National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Colobopsis schmitzi ant on peristome of Nepenthes bicalcarata pitcher. Although these carnivorous plants trap most insects, this ant has a mutualistic relationship with the plant and is able to freely walk on the slippery surface. Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Ants (Crematogaster sp.) tending to a butterfly caterpillar (Spindasis sp.). Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Few things exemplify the incredible complexity of rainforest ecosystems more than that of mutualisms between species. Here, a group of Giant Forest Ants (Dinomyrmex gigas) tend to a pair of lanternflies (Pyrops cultellatus), a relationship that has a net benefit for both species. The lanternflies, feeding directly from the phloem of the tree with their piercing straw-like mouthparts, harvest much more sugar-rich fluid than they actually need; the excess being excreted intermittently as a squirt of honeydew droplets from their abdomen. The ants position themselves directly behind and below the lanternflies and intercept these droplets with their heads, then consume the fluid and share it with their nestmates. In return, the ants guard the lanternflies and will ferociously attack any potential threat. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Giant ant plant (Myrmecodia lamii). The alpine meadows of central New Guinea are dominated by giant ant plants such as this one. Due to their association with ants they are able to effectively acquire nutrients despite the poor soil. Lake Habbema, Highland Papua, Indonesia (New Guinea).
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  • Hydnophytum caminiferum. A closeup look at the chimney-like openings along the tuber of this unusual shrub. Although most Hydnophytum are ant-plants (myrmecophytes), it is still unknown what insects (or animals) this species plays host to. West Papua, Indonesia (New Guinea).
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  • Hydnophytum caminiferum. A closeup look at the chimney-like openings along the tuber of this unusual shrub. Although most Hydnophytum are ant-plants (myrmecophytes), it is still unknown what insects (or animals) this species plays host to. West Papua, Indonesia (New Guinea).
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  • Giant Forest Ants (Dinomyrmex gigas) tending to fulgorid planthoppers (Scamandra polychroma) for honeydew secretions. Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Hardwicke's Woolly Bat (Kerivoula hardwickii) roosting in a pitcher of Nepenthes hemsleyana. Belait, Brunei Darussalam (Borneo).
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  • A giant ant plant (Myrmecodia sp.) growing is one of the tallest plants among the stunted vegetation of a highland sphagnum bog. Central Papua, Indonesia (New Guinea).
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  • Ants (Dolichoderus beccarii) protecting treehoppers from which they harvest honeydew. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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