Chien C. Lee

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  • The size of your gun doesn’t matter when you’re outnumbered. Although in possession of one of the most powerful stings of all insects, this giant Bullet Ant (Paraponera clavata) is easily overcome by far smaller leafcutter ants (Atta cephalotes) after it inadvertently wandered too close to their nest. Leafcutters are not predatory, but their sharp mandibles, which are designed for slicing leaves, are so powerful that they make quick work of the intruder, dismembering it in a matter of minutes. Limón, Costa Rica.
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  • Hairy-headed Leafcutter Ants (Atta cephalotes) attacking intruding Bullet Ant (Paraponera clavata). Limón, Costa Rica.
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  • Although many small insects disguise themselves as ants to take advantage of their unpalatability, mimicry by another ant species is quite a rare occurrence. At a quick glance the two ants in this photo appear the same, especially while they are quickly scurrying down a stem, but closer inspection reveals that in fact there is a clever deception taking place. The ant at the bottom is Crematogaster inflata, an uncommon species from the rainforests of Borneo, which is distinctive in having a swollen orange metathorax. Its glands can exude a toxic sticky fluid as a defense and predators thus tend to avoid this species, heeding its bright warning coloration. At top is a relatively harmless Camponotus ant (actually an unnamed species) that mimics the Crematogaster in size, shape, and color - although its orange coloration is found on its abdomen rather than its thorax.  Observations of this species are rare but curiously, these Camponotus mimics have only ever been observed in close proximity to colonies of Crematogaster inflata. The exact nature of their association and whether or not these mimics derive other advantages from their toxic models is still unknown. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Leaf-cutter Ants (Atta laevigata) return to their nest carring sections of leaves which will be used to feed their underground fungus gardens. Canaima National Park, Venezuela.
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  • Ant-hunting spider (Mallinella sp.) predating a Giant Forest Ant (Dinomyrmex gigas ssp. borneensis), which it also mimics. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Golden Forest Ant (Polyrhachis ypsilon). Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Marauder Ants (Carebara affinis) attacking a beetle grub. The minor workers are assisted by their larger sisters, the majors and super-majors, which use their powerful mandibles to cut the grub into smaller pieces. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • With over 700 described species, the ant diversity of Borneo is extraordinarily rich. Although many ants defend themselves with toxic compounds or painful stings, some such as this species (Meranoplus mucronatus) are protected by sharp spines to deter predators. This group of workers is attending to a herd of extremely small planthopper nymphs, from which they take secreted honeydew. Deramakot Forest Reserve, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Few things exemplify the incredible complexity of rainforest ecosystems more than that of mutualisms between species. Here, a group of Giant Forest Ants (Dinomyrmex gigas) tend to a pair of lanternflies (Pyrops cultellatus), a relationship that has a net benefit for both species. The lanternflies, feeding directly from the phloem of the tree with their piercing straw-like mouthparts, harvest much more sugar-rich fluid than they actually need; the excess being excreted intermittently as a squirt of honeydew droplets from their abdomen. The ants position themselves directly behind and below the lanternflies and intercept these droplets with their heads, then consume the fluid and share it with their nestmates. In return, the ants guard the lanternflies and will ferociously attack any potential threat. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Two Giant Forest Ants (Dinomyrmex gigas) from different colonies confront each other in a territorial dispute.  Rather than engage in full combat, this species usually resolves such conflict in a series of ritualistc fights. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Crematogaster inflata, a conspicuous ant with aposematic coloration. The swollen orange metathorax can secrete a sticky substance as a defensive chemical when the ant is disturbed. Kubah National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • The Bullet Ant (Paraponera clavata), a big reason why hikers in the Amazonian rainforest always proceed with trepidation when stepping off the trail into thick vegetation. One of the largest ants in the world, this species is infamous for its ferocious sting which some (unfortunate) individuals consider equivalent in pain to being shot. The ant's sting contains a neurotoxic venom and has been rated by biologists as the only perfect "4+" on the Schmidt Sting Pain Index, making it the most painful of all insect stings. Coca, Ecuador.
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  • Velvet ant (Hoplomutilla xanthocerata). Limón, Costa Rica.
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  • A Giant Forest Ant (Dinomyrmex gigas) receives a droplet of sweet honeydew from the abdomen of a juvenile leaf-footed bug (Notobitus sp.). The bugs, which obtain more sugar than they need from the plant juices they feed on, are fiercely guarded by the ants in return. Mutually beneficial trophobiotic relationships such as this are very advantageous in the competitive ecosystem of the rainforest. Danum Valley Conservation Area, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A potter wasp (Omicroides singularis) returns to her nest with a paralyzed caterpillar. Each perfectly crafted urn will be filled with a dozen or so caterpillars before she deposits a single egg and seals the entrance. The developing wasp larvae will feed on the caterpillars before pupating and emerging as an adult. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Bee killed by entomopathogenic fungi (Ophiocordyceps sp.). Maliau Basin Conservation Area, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Tiny, ubiquitous, and comprising many thousands of species, parasitoid wasps extract a heavy toll on their hosts, with many species responsible for keeping other insect populations in check. Here, a female wasp (Anastus sp.), just a few millimeters in length, drills her ovipositer into the eggshell of an Atlas Moth (Attacus atlas), the world's largest moth. Her developing larvae will consume the contents of the egg and pupate therein before emerging as adults. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A female pompilid wasp (Eragenia congrua) hauls a paralyzed spider (Corinna sp.) towards her nest, after having neatly amputated its legs to make the transport of her victim easier. This will not be food for her, but for her offspring. Her nest consists of a hole in the soft bark of a tree, and once depositing the spider inside she will lay a single egg, which upon hatching into a larva will consume the still-living host. Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.
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  • The dreaded Bullet Ant (Paraponera clavata), in possession of the most painful sting on the planet, here has fallen prey to an even more sinister organism: a parasitoid fungus (Ophiocordycipitaceae). The ‘zombification’ of insects in tropical rainforests has been well documented, but the incredibly precise way that these fungi control the behavior of their hosts prior to consuming them is not yet fully understood. Recent research indicates that, rather than invading the brain which might kill the insect prematurely, the fungus may directly control the muscles of its host like a puppet. In this way it can lead the ant to a location where it is more likely to infect others. Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.
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  • Bullet Ant (Paraponera clavata) killed by parasitoid fungi (Ophiocordyceps ponerinarum). Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.
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  • A Red-bearded Bee-eater (Nyctyornis amictus) living up to its name: here with a large black carpenter bee (Xylocopa sp.) it has caught in mid-air. While most bee-eaters prefer open woodlands and forest edges, this species is unusual in that it is typically found deep within rainforest. Flashy colors in birds are often possessed only by the males and typically function as a means of advertising for a mate. However, in this species both males and females sport a bright red face, which suggests that the coloration may serve a different purpose. One theory is that this may serve to attract flower-feeding insects to venture closer for a look - a convenient way for the bird to catch an easy meal. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Large soliders with open mandibles defend an advancing column of Driver Ants (Dorylus nigricans) in the central African rainforest. Kabarole, Uganda.
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  • Night Hornet (Provespa anomala). Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Spiny ant (Polyrhachis armata). Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Bullet Ant (Paraponera clavata). Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.
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  • With their spring-loaded jaws capable of snapping shut at over 200km/h, trap-jaw ants (Odontomachus sp.) have some of the fastest predatory strikes in the animal kingdom. However, this isn’t their only weapon: they also possess a powerful wasp-like sting that can either subdue prey or serve as an effective deterrent against any animal foolish enough to disturb their nest. There are over 70 species distributed throughout the tropics, shown here is one of the largest: O. tyrannicus from the steamy lowland jungles of New Guinea, its mandibles retracted and ready to strike. Papua, Indonesia.
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  • Ants (Dolichoderus beccarii) protecting treehoppers from which they harvest honeydew. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A butterfly caterpillar (Cupha erymanthis) standing guard over a clutch of parasitic wasp pupae that recently hatched from its body. Having been impregnated by eggs from a female wasp, the larvae develop within the caterpillar, consuming its flesh as they grow. In order to keep their host alive, the wasp larvae are careful to avoid all vital organs and the caterpillar thus appears and behaves rather normal until the larvae eventually emerge. In a similar vein to the mind-controlled zombie ants, the wasp larvae also secrete some cocktail of hormones that modify the behavior of the caterpillar, in this case it is induced to stand guard and protect the wasp pupae from predators or other parasitic wasps until it eventually dies of starvation. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A procession of Asian army ants (Leptogenys processionalis) transports their entire colony, including the large tubular pupae of new workers, to a new site.  These ants posses a fierce sting. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A Golden Forest Ant (Polyrhachis ypsilon) has been killed by a parasitic Ophiocordyceps fungus which has consumed its body. Before dying, the behaviour of infected ants is controlled by the fungus, and are directed to climb to a suitable location usually on the underside of a leaf. There the fungus kills its host and produces fruiting bodies which releases spores to infect more ants below. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Mutualisms between ants and treehoppers are so effective that sometimes multiple species can occur together on the same plant without conflicts. Here, a Myrmecaria ant worker tends to a short-horned Tricentrus sp., while an extravagantly adorned Pyrgauchenia biuni feeds nearby. Both of these treehoppers feed on the plant phloem, tapping into the stem with their proboscis, and secrete excess sugary fluid which the ants gather. In return the ants not only fiercely protect the treehoppers from predators, but sometimes also assist in distributing the young hoppers to suitable branches on the host stem. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Marauder Ants (Carebara affinis) attacking a beetle grub. The minor workers are assisted by their larger sisters, the majors and super-majors, which use their powerful mandibles to cut the grub into smaller pieces. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Ants (Stictoponera menadensis) feeding on extrafloral nectaries on the stems of Leea aculeata. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Ants (Crematogaster sp.) tending to a butterfly caterpillar (Spindasis sp.). Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Colobopsis schmitzi ant on peristome of Nepenthes bicalcarata pitcher. Although these carnivorous plants trap most insects, this ant has a mutualistic relationship with the plant and is able to freely walk on the slippery surface. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A sleeping habit shared with many other solitary bee species that don't have a hive to return to at night, this Orchid Bee (Euglossa sp.) passes the night suspended in the air by biting into a leaf. In addition to their beautiful metallic colorations, Euglossine bees are remarkable for their mutually-dependent relationships with orchids from which they derive unique fragrances essential for their courtship. Utría National Natural Park, Choco, Colombia.
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  • Although normally solitary, male Longhorn Bees such as these (Thygater sp.), often form sleeping aggregations on the undersides of leaves at night – a behavior aimed at reducing predatory risk. However, this group seems to be unaware of the imminent danger now lurking in their midst: while sleeping, one of their group has quietly been devoured from inside out by a pathogenic fungus (Ophiocordyceps humbertii). Long fruiting bodies now grow from the carcass of the dead bee, eventually releasing copious spores that will colonize the fungi’s next victim. Panamá Oeste, Panama.
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  • Giant Forest Ants (Dinomyrmex gigas) tending to fulgorid planthoppers (Scamandra polychroma) for honeydew secretions. Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • After detecting the presence of a wood-boring grub with her antennae, a female ichneumon wasp drills through the tree bark with her ovipositor to deposit an egg on the insect's body. Halmahera, North Maluku, Indonesia.
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  • A colony on the move: a swarm of giant stinging ants (Leptogenys chalybaea) moves across the Borneo rainforest floor carrying their brood (grubs, pupa, and winged reproductives). These are Asia’s equivalent of ‘army ants’: nomadic hunters that deplete their prey in one area before moving their entire nest to a new site every few days. Leptogenys ants, and this species in particular, are aggressive and possess a painful sting, reasons that they are well respected by other animals in the Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A colony on the move: a swarm of giant stinging ants (Leptogenys chalybaea) moves across the Borneo rainforest floor carrying their brood (grubs, pupa, and winged reproductives). These are Asia’s equivalent of ‘army ants’: nomadic hunters that deplete their prey in one area before moving their entire nest to a new site every few days. Leptogenys ants, and this species in particular, are aggressive and possess a painful sting, reasons that they are well respected by other animals in the forest. Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Unable to fly with a load many times her own weight, a female Thread-waisted Sand Wasp (Ammophila beniniensis) hauls a large caterpillar which she has paralyzed with her sting. She is seeking a burrow she has prepared in advance and, even though it may be a considerable distance away, she shows a remarkable orientation ability even though there may be numerous obstacles in her path. Once placed inside, with the burrow sealed shut by small rocks and its entrance hidden from potential thieves, the ill-fated caterpillar will serve as live food for the single egg the wasp has deposited along with it. Fianarantsoa, Madagascar.
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  • Covered in gaudy colors to warn of her painful sting, a female velvet ant (Odontomutilla grossa) scurries about the rainforest floor in search of a nest to parasitize. These are not ants at all but actually a type of wasp (family Mutillidae) in which the females are completely wingless. Eggs are laid in the nests of other wasps or bees where they feed on the larvae of their host. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Seemingly oblivious to its own potential demise, an ornamental moth caterpillar (Rhuda sp.) carries on about its daily business while a tiny parasitoid Chalcidid wasp (Conura sp.) rides piggyback. These wasps are among a multitude of related species which utilize caterpillars (and their pupae) as living hosts for their brood. After depositing its eggs, the wasp’s larvae develop within the caterpillar’s body, carefully consuming its non-vital organs until they are ready to emerge. In this way, the caterpillar will be kept alive just long enough to insure the wasp larvae are able to complete their life cycle. Soberanía National Park, Panama.
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  • With over 700 described species, the ant diversity of Borneo is extraordinarily rich. Although many ants defend themselves with toxic compounds or painful stings, some such as this species (Meranoplus mucronatus) are protected by sharp spines to deter predators. This group of workers is attending to a herd of extremely small planthopper nymphs, from which they take secreted honeydew. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Army Ants (Eciton burchellii). Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.
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  • In the insect world, even having a vicious sting isn’t enough to always save you from some larger predators. Here, in the dry spiny forest of southern Madagascar, a wasp has fallen prey to a giant robber fly (Microstylum sp.). With fast wings, excellent eyesight, and piercing mouthparts, robber flies catch other insects in mid flight and suck out their insides like a juice pack. Berenty Private Reserve, Amboasary, Madagascar.
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  • A column of nomadic Asian army ants (Aenictus laeviceps) carry their developing larvae to a new temporary nesting site. Ants of the genus Aenictus are specialized predators on other social insects, including wasps, bees, termites, and other ant species. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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