Chien C. Lee

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  • This predaceous ground beetle (Lioptera plato) exhibits a distinctive warning color pattern which is commonly repeated among many different species of beetles (including a commonly associated fungus beetle Epicaustes) that all share a similar habitat niche. Because all species appear to share a distasteful chemical defense this may be a possible example of Mullerian mimicry. Danum Valley, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Fungus beetle (Encaustes sp.) exhibiting Muellerian mimicry of associated ground beetles (Lioptera sp.). Both fungus beetles and ground beetles show the same orange and black patterns and are similarly distasteful to predators. Danum Valley, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Although many small insects disguise themselves as ants to take advantage of their unpalatability, mimicry by another ant species is quite a rare occurrence. At a quick glance the two ants in this photo appear the same, especially while they are quickly scurrying down a stem, but closer inspection reveals that in fact there is a clever deception taking place. The ant at the bottom is Crematogaster inflata, an uncommon species from the rainforests of Borneo, which is distinctive in having a swollen orange metathorax. Its glands can exude a toxic sticky fluid as a defense and predators thus tend to avoid this species, heeding its bright warning coloration. At top is a relatively harmless Camponotus ant (actually an unnamed species) that mimics the Crematogaster in size, shape, and color - although its orange coloration is found on its abdomen rather than its thorax.  Observations of this species are rare but curiously, these Camponotus mimics have only ever been observed in close proximity to colonies of Crematogaster inflata. The exact nature of their association and whether or not these mimics derive other advantages from their toxic models is still unknown. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A fly-mimicking weevil (Hoplocopturus sp.) from the Ecuadorian rainforest. Most cases of insect mimicry involve the imitation of a toxic or distasteful species as a model, so the reason for this beetle to appear like an entirely edible fly is not immediately apparent. However, entomologists studying these insects suggest that because flies are so agile and quick, most visually-oriented predators (particularly birds) probably learn to avoid wasting their time pursuing them, hence the incentive for this “evasive mimicry”. Sumaco Napo-Galeras National Park, Napo, Ecuador.
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  • A juvenile Broad-headed Bug (family Alydidae) showing mimicry of a small ant. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • The Three-striped Ground Snake (Pseudoxyrhopus tritaeniatus) is certainly one of the most beautiful of Madagascan endemic snakes, but why is it colored this way? Bold red stripes are frequently used as an aposematic warning, indicating to other animals of severe danger. It is curious then that not only is this species completely non-venomous but there are in fact no other dangerous snakes in Madagascar that this could possibly be a mimic of. An interesting theory points to the co-occurrence of large red toxic millipedes in the same forests – could these actually be a mimicry model for this snake? On an island legendary for its biological curiosities, nothing seems beyond the realm of possibility. Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar.
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  • With a full palette of colorful wing scales at their disposal, butterflies are capable of pulling off some of the most convincing and complex mimicries in the insect world. At first glance this is a common clear-winged Ithomiid butterfly, which are known for their toxicity and unpalatability. However, it is actually a Clearwinged Mimic-white (Dismorphia theucharila), a non-toxic species of the family Pieridae. It can be distinguished from its toxic models (Oleria spp.) by counting the number of legs: Dismorphia has six, whereas Oleria stands on only four. Insectivorous birds don’t have time to stop and count the legs on every butterfly in the forest, so this mimicry is a highly successful one. Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.
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  • Shag-carpet Caterpillar (Prothysana), one of two species that, aside from their curious appearance, exhibit a remarkable form of mimicry. Tiny parasitoid wasps are known for extracting a heavy toll on caterpillars: their larvae devour a caterpillar from inside out, emerging once they are ready to turn into adult wasps and leaving their distinctive white cocoons in the process. At a glance, the white dorsal hairs of Prothsyana look exactly like these wasp cocoons, so much so that the wasps themselves likely avoid laying their eggs in this caterpillar, believing that it has already been eaten. Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.
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  • Keeping its wings outstretched and rotating erratically on the surface of a leaf, this tiny metalmark moth (Brenthia sp.) pulls off a surprisingly good mimicry of a jumping spider and its movements. Lab tests have demonstrated that jumping spiders, which normally constitute a major predator for small moths, will usually avoid Brenthia since an encounter with another spider could lead to a perilous confrontation. Yunnan, China.
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  • Some of the most recognizable of all insects, ladybird beetles are brightly colored to warn predators of the potent alkaloids present in their blood, making them not only foul-smelling but also quite toxic. In a classic case of mimicry, this tiny spider (Paraplectana sp. - probably an undescribed species), carries out a convincing masquerade by means of its similar coloration and bulbous domed abdomen. East Kalimantan, Indonesia (Borneo).
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  • A fly-mimicking weevil (Hoplocopturus sp.) from the Ecuadorian rainforest. Most cases of insect mimicry involve the imitation of a toxic or distasteful species as a model, so the reason for this beetle to appear like an entirely edible fly is not immediately apparent. However, entomologists studying these insects suggest that because flies are so agile and quick, most visually-oriented predators (particularly birds) probably learn to avoid wasting their time pursuing them, hence the incentive for this “evasive mimicry”. Sumaco Napo-Galeras National Park, Napo, Ecuador.
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  • Broad-headed bugs (Riptortus sp.), juveniles showing mimicry of Oecophylla weaver ants. West Papua, Indonesia (New Guinea).
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  • It’s hard at first glance not to be fooled by the appearance of this wasp-mimicking katydid (Aganacris nitida), which is modeled after a stinging thread-waisted wasp (Eremnophila spp.). To enhance the effectiveness of this masquerade, the katydid also copies the wasp’s quick erratic movements, as most other katydids (especially camouflaged ones) move rather slowly. Katydids possess no chemical or otherwise painful defenses, and make for particularly good meals for predators, which is the driving force behind their remarkable disguises. Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.
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  • Patents don’t exist in nature, and no species has a monopoly on clever designs. Here, a mantidfly (Mantispidae) makes use of spiny raptorial front legs to catch prey, much like a praying mantis. Mantidflies are actually more closely related to lacewings and ant-lions, and like their relatives they have no chemical or otherwise painful defenses against predators. Because of this, many mantidflies mimic wasps and in this particular species it appears to specifically mimic an orange Night Wasp (Provespa anomala). Anyone who has ventured into the Bornean rainforest after dark knows that night wasps are to be avoided: they possess an extremely painful sting that can cause skin necrosis. Danum Valley, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Tiger moth (Correbidia sp.) which mimics a toxic net-winged beetle (Lycidae). Esmeraldas, Ecuador.
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  • Mantispid (family Mantispidae), also known as a ‘mantidfly’. Looking something like a praying mantis crossed with a lacewing, this tiny predator uses the same raptorial front legs to grab its prey and hold them fast while eating them alive. Contrary to their appearance, they are not closely related to mantids, implying that this effective hunting strategy has evolved on more than one occasion in the insect kingdom. Pulong Tau National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Ant-hunting spider (Mallinella sp.) predating a Giant Forest Ant (Dinomyrmex gigas ssp. borneensis), which it also mimics. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Picture-winged fly (Cleitamia sp., family Platystomatidae) with spider-like patterns on its wings to deter predation from spiders. Papua, Indonesia (New Guinea).
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  • Crab spiders of the genus Amyciaea are excellent mimics of Weaver Ants (Oecophylla), their preferred prey. In this manner they are able to both avoid predators and easily approach within striking distance of the ants. North Maluku, Indonesia.
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  • Although completely non-venomous, the Painted Mock Viper (Psammodynastes pictus) defends itself by aggressively striking if threatened. It often hunts aquatic animals such as frogs and fish by perching on a low branch over the surface of the water. Central Kalimantan, Indonesia (Borneo).
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  • When threatened, the harmless Ceylonese Pipe Snake (Cylindrophis maculatus) employs a clever trick: it flattens its tail and raises it to expose the bright checkered pattern underneath. Not only does this divert attacks away from its vulnerable head (which remains hidden beneath), but these bold color patterns resemble venomous coral snakes (Calliophis sp.). Central Province, Sri Lanka.
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  • Wasp-mimicking moth (Atrijuglans hetaohei). Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Wasp-mimicking moth (Xestocasis sp.). Papua, Indonesia (New Guinea).
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  • Ant-mimicking mantis (Acromantinae), nymph. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Asian Ant Mantis (Odontomantis sp.). Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Lion Beetle (Ulochaetes leoninus). California, USA.
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  • In possession of one of the most painful stings in the insect world, tarantula wasps (Pepsis spp.) are avoided by just about every animal in the forest. This makes them a great thing to be mistaken for, especially if you happen to be an otherwise defenseless katydid such as this (Aganacris velutina). The katydid not only mimics the wasp’s distinctive coloration of a shiny black body with bright orange wings and antennae, but also its quick and jerky movements, making it appear decidedly ‘un-katydidlike’. This is particularly amazing considering katydids are family of insects normally renowned for their remarkable camouflage colorations. Canandé Reserve, Esmeraldas, Ecuador.
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  • Ant-mimicking tiger beetle (Neocollyris sp.). Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Jumping spider-mimicking caddisfly (Nectopsyche tuanis). Cartago, Costa Rica.
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  • Assassin bug (Zelurus sp.) which mimics a spider wasp. Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.
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  • Ant-mimicking mantis (Hapalopeza sp.), juvenile. Kubah National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo)
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  • Flightless tiger beetle (Tricondyla sp.). South Sulawesi, Indonesia.
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  • Painted Antnest Frog (Lithodytes lineatus), a mimic of toxic dendrobatid frogs. Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.
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  • Tiger moth (Cratoplastis diluta), mimicking a firefly beetle (Lampyridae). Esmeraldas, Ecuador.
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  • Jumping spider-mimicking moth (Nymphicula sp.). Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Rarely encountered due to their subterranean habits, Dwarf Pipe Snakes (Anomochilidae) are very little studied and are known from only a small handful of specimens. In addition to their bold coloration (which may serve to mimic venomous coral snakes), they also a false head on their tail to deflect attacks away from their true head. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Red-headed Reed Snake (Calamaria schlegeli schlegeli), a small soil-dwelling species which feeds on frogs and slugs. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Planthopper (Rhotana marmorata), showing wings that mimic the appearance of a jumping spider which is one of their primary predators. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Iridescent Bark Mantis (Metallyticus splendidus). One of the most beautiful of all praying mantises, these rare mantids are unique in their metallic coloration. They are found on and underneath bark of rainforest trees and are believed to prey exclusively on cockroaches. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Despite its appearance and usually fearsome disposition, the Dusky Mock Viper (Psammodynastes pulverulentus) possesses only a weak venom and is not dangerous to humans. It feeds on lizards and frogs. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Mantispid (family Mantispidae), also known as a ‘mantidfly’. Looking something like a praying mantis crossed with a lacewing, this tiny predator uses the same raptorial front legs to grab its prey and hold them fast while eating them alive. Contrary to their appearance, they are not closely related to mantids, implying that this effective hunting strategy has evolved on more than one occasion in the insect kingdom. Danum Valley Conservation Area, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Rarely encountered due to their subterranean habits, Dwarf Pipe Snakes (Anomochilidae) are very little studied and are known from only a small handful of specimens. In addition to their bold coloration (which may serve to mimic venomous coral snakes), they also a false head on their tail to deflect attacks away from their true head. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Jumping spider-mimicking planthopper (Rhotana hirashimai). Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • This seed bug (Metochus schultheissi) is the same size and color as the stinging Diacamma ant it shares its habitat with. Kubah National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Ant-mimic Crab Spider (Amyciaea forticeps), male. Kubah National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • With its gaudy appearance and bold stance on top of a leaf, one might think that this tiny metalmark moth (Brenthia sp.) would make easy prey for a small predator like a jumping spider. However, if you blur your eyes just a little, you might be able to see why jumping spiders hesitate before attacking these moths: their wing patterns look remarkably similar to another jumping spider. Note particularly the “fuzzy legs” (dark bands) held to the side and the eyespots with reflections at the top. Jumping spiders may not have as acute eyesight as we do, but they are nevertheless visually-oriented predators, and they also avoid risky conflicts with others of their kind. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Lined Pipe Snake (Cylindrophis lineatus) also known as Blanford's Pipe Snake, a rare species endemic to Borneo and known from only a few specimens. When threatened, this species defends itself by raising its tail which is thickened and colored to appear as a head. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Wasp moths (Amata pseudextensa), mating. Mount Kinabalu National Park, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Research has revealed that the marginal eyespots in butterflies can serve to deflect bird attacks away from the insect's vital spots, thereby allowing escape. This effect is particularly effective in the low light intensities of the dim forest understory and at dawn or dusk when the resting butterflies are particularly prone to predation by birds. This individual (Faunis stomphax) shows evidence of having escaped two attacks by birds which attempted to grab the butterfly by the wing eyespots. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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