Chien C. Lee

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  • A Cage Fungus (Pseudoclathrus cylindrosporus) grows in the rich decaying humus of Mount Kinabalu's montane rainforest. Flies, which are attracted to the strong putrid odor, disperse the spores which are found in a brown slime secreted on the inner surface of the receptaculum. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • After quickly selecting a ripe fig (Ficus fistulosa), a Short-nosed Fruit Bat (Cynopterus brachyotis) makes off with her prize to dine some distance away at a safe perch, thereby helping to disperse the tree's seeds that will ultimately lead to fruit for her future generations. Figs reach their pinnacle of diversity in Borneo with at least 150 species and, perhaps more than any other group of plants, are considered keystone species of the rainforest because of the complex interdependences they exhibit with countless animals and insects. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Southern Opossum (Didelphis marsupialis), its fur covered with sticky seeds of a tropical grass (Pharus sp.), which is specialized for being dispersed by mammals. Colón, Panama.
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  • A Short-nosed Fruit Bat (Cynopterus brachyotis) swoops in to select a ripe fig (Ficus fistulosa) growing directly on the trunk of the tree. Rather than eating on the spot, the bat will carry the fig off to a favorite perch where it can dine in safety, thus helping to spread the tree's seeds. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Seeds of Alsomitra macrocarpa, a large tropical climbing vine, lie scattered on the forest floor.  Each seeds is adorned with a large transparent wing which enables it to glide slowly down from the rainforest canopy, sometimes traveling hundreds of yards. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • During a rare mass fruiting season winged seeds of a dipterocarp tree (Dryobalanops lanceolata) whirl their way down to the forest floor like miniature helicopters. This adaptation allows the seeds to scatter over a larger area, thus increasing their chance of survival. Danum Valley Conservation Area, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Bushy-crested Hornbill (Anorrhinus galeritus), eating fruits on a hanging vine (Adenia macrophylla). Sepilok Forest Reserve, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Seeds of Alsomitra macrocarpa, a large tropical climbing vine, lie scattered on the forest floor.  Each seeds is adorned with a large transparent wing which enables it to glide slowly down from the rainforest canopy, sometimes traveling hundreds of yards. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Luminous Porecap (Favolaschia manipularis), releasing spores. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • There is a magic moment that exists between the end of day and the fall of night - in the Bornean rainforest this is signaled by the wailing of cicadas, with the deepening darkness abruptly revealing many things that were unseen in the light. Here, a cluster of Luminous Porecaps (Favolaschia manipularis) begin to show their innate greenish glow at dusk. It is believed that this bioluminescence plays a role in spore dispersal: in the still air of the rainforest understory these mushrooms gain and advantage by having wood-feeding insects (which are attracted to their light) carry the spore to new locations. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • The fruits of this tenacious jungle vine (Alsomitra macrocarpa) hang from the branches of an emergent tree above the rainforest canopy.  The seeds which are released through a hole at the bottom of the fruit are equipped with a huge transparent wing which enables them to glide hundreds of yards before reaching the ground.  A classic example of mechanical dispersal in the forest. East Kalimantan, Indonesia (Borneo).
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  • Venezuela’s fabled tabletop mountains may have once inspired Arthur Conan Doyle’s science fiction novel “The Lost World”, where he imagined the summits to be home to a plethora of gigantic prehistoric creatures that had been separated from the evolution of life on the rest of the planet for eons of time. Disappointingly, dinosaurs were never found on these mountains and, despite being home to many endemics and indeed a fair share of “living fossils”, recent genetic studies have shown that many species in fact have likely arrived well after the tepuis had been fully formed. This reveals that the imposing rocky cliffs, which seemingly isolate the summits from the jungles below, may not be as significant a physical barrier for dispersal as once believed. This young Boddaert's Tropical Racer (Mastigodryas boddaerti), encountered on the plateau of Auyán Tepui, is a widespread species in northern South America, and although prey is scarce on these mountaintops, it presumably hunts for endemic frogs.  Canaima National Park, Venezuela.
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  • Fruit and nectar bats (family Pteropodidae) play an important role in the dispersal and pollination of many rainforest trees including figs, bananas, and durian. Over 17 species occur in Borneo, including the widespread Short-nosed Fruit Bat (Cynopterus brachyotis, pictured here). Unlike insectivorous bats, most Pteropodids do not echolocate and instead rely on their large eyes and keen sense of smell for nocturnal navigation. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • It is probable that the luminescent quality of these small mushrooms (Favolaschia manipularis) serve to attract nocturnal insects which will aid in spore dispersal. Bako National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Grandidier's Baobab (Adansonia grandidieri). The baobab trees of Madagascar are such an iconic sight that it's easy to overlook the fact that some species are highly endangered. In addition to habitat loss, Madagascar baobabs have very poor seedling survival rates and young trees are a rare find. It is theorized that their large pulpy fruits were only consumed by now extinct animals such as giant tortoises, baboon-like lemurs, and the enormous elephant birds, which served to disperse the tree's seeds. Since some of these animals only disappeared in the past thousand years it is quite possible that the oldest trees existing today germinated from the dung of Madagascar's lost megafauna. Morondava, Madagascar.
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  • With delicate precision, a female leaf katydid (Phyllomimus sp.) uses her blade-like ovipositor to open a slit in the stem of a wild ginger (Etlingera velutina) where she will insert her eggs. The young, like miniature versions of their mother but without wings, will disperse soon after hatching. Kubah National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo)
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  • With almost a sinister beauty, this garden of parasitoid fungus (possibly Akanthomyces) sprouts its fruiting bodies from the back of a moth it has killed. These release millions of microscopic spores which are dispersed into the surrounding area. When ingested by another insect they spell certain doom. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Male parental care is quite rare in nature, but a variety of frogs throughout the tropics show instances where the father transports the young on his back. In most cases this involves carrying either eggs or tadpoles, but in a few New Guinean species, such as this Sphenophryne cornuta, actual froglets ride in piggyback fashion. A member of the Microhylidae, these frogs have direct-development larvae which means that the tadpoles morph into tiny frogs before leaving the egg, an adaptation enabling them to negate the need for a pool of water. The froglets will hitch a ride on the back of their father for several days before being dispersed in the rainforest understory. Digul River, South Papua, Indonesia (New Guinea)
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  • Goniothalamus ridleyi. Cauliflory (flowering and fruiting along the trunk) is a common phenomenon among many rainforest tree species, and is an adaptation to reach pollinating and dispersing animals in the understory. East Kalimantan, Indonesia (Borneo).
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  • Grandidier's Baobab (Adansonia grandidieri). The baobab trees of Madagascar are such an iconic sight that it's easy to overlook the fact that some species are highly endangered. In addition to habitat loss, Madagascar baobabs have very poor seedling survival rates and young trees are a rare find. It is theorized that their large pulpy fruits were only consumed by now extinct animals such as giant tortoises, baboon-like lemurs, and the enormous elephant birds, which served to disperse the tree's seeds. Since some of these animals only disappeared in the past thousand years it is quite possible that the oldest trees existing today germinated from the dung of Madagascar's lost megafauna. Morondava, Madagascar.
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  • Blooming only once every three years, a corpse lily (Amorphophallus hewittii) opens its enormous inflorescence in the lowland rainforest of Borneo. The white spadix generates its own heat which helps to disperse its rotting stench to attract flies and beetles as pollinators. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Polyalthia cauliflora. Cauliflory (flowering and fruiting along the trunk) is a common phenomenon among many rainforest tree species and is an adaptation to reach pollinating and dispersing animals in the understory. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A juvenile Lowland Paca (Cuniculus paca) photographed by camera trap. These large rodents are solitary and live in burrows, emerging only at night to forage on vegetation of the forest floor, including fallen fruits, and are important dispersers of many rainforest seeds. Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.
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  • The large red fruits of this Kelumpang Sarawak (Sterculia megistophylla) tree have split open revealing the shiny seeds within. Cauliflory (flowering and fruiting along the trunk) is a common phenomenon among many rainforest tree species, and is an adaptation to reach pollinating and dispersing animals in the understory. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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