Chien C. Lee

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  • The haunting hollow skeleton of a fly is all that remains after being consumed alive by a parasitoid fungi (Ophiocordyceps cf. dipterigena) in the New Guinean rainforest. Two different types of fruiting bodies have emerged from the fly's body: the dorsal 'mushrooms' (ascostroma) are perfectly positioned to release tiny spores on the fungi's next victim. The tropics hold a great diversity of these entomopathogenic fungi, with undoubtedly many undescribed species, each apparently tailored to target specific insect hosts. West Papua, Indonesia.
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  • Bullet Ant (Paraponera clavata) killed by parasitoid fungi (Ophiocordyceps ponerinarum). Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.
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  • Cup fungi (Cookeina sp.). Papua, Indonesia (New Guinea).
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  • Bee killed by entomopathogenic fungi (Ophiocordyceps sp.). Maliau Basin Conservation Area, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Moth killed by Akanthomyces fungi. Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.
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  • Although the ‘zombie ants’ are undoubtedly the most infamous, entomopathogenic fungi come in a great diversity of species, many of which specialize in a particular type of prey. Here, a weevil has been killed by Ophiocordyceps curculionum, and is now a host to three fruiting bodies that have been releasing new spores. Like the mind-controlling fungi in ants, this pathogen similarly manipulates the weevil like a puppeteer to position itself in the ideal spot before it dies. Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.
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  • With almost a sinister beauty, this garden of parasitoid fungus (possibly Akanthomyces) sprouts its fruiting bodies from the back of a moth it has killed. These release millions of microscopic spores which are dispersed into the surrounding area. When ingested by another insect they spell certain doom. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A Golden Forest Ant (Polyrhachis ypsilon) has been killed by a parasitic Ophiocordyceps fungus which has consumed its body. Before dying, the behaviour of infected ants is controlled by the fungus, and are directed to climb to a suitable location usually on the underside of a leaf. There the fungus kills its host and produces fruiting bodies which releases spores to infect more ants below. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • The dreaded Bullet Ant (Paraponera clavata), in possession of the most painful sting on the planet, here has fallen prey to an even more sinister organism: a parasitoid fungus (Ophiocordycipitaceae). The ‘zombification’ of insects in tropical rainforests has been well documented, but the incredibly precise way that these fungi control the behavior of their hosts prior to consuming them is not yet fully understood. Recent research indicates that, rather than invading the brain which might kill the insect prematurely, the fungus may directly control the muscles of its host like a puppet. In this way it can lead the ant to a location where it is more likely to infect others. Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.
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  • A cluster of large mushrooms (Armillaria sp.) emerges from the forest floor in Maliau Basin Conservation Area in northern Borneo. Parasitic on woody plants, Armillaria fungi can spread over large areas and be fatal to many tree species. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Although normally solitary, male Longhorn Bees such as these (Thygater sp.), often form sleeping aggregations on the undersides of leaves at night – a behavior aimed at reducing predatory risk. However, this group seems to be unaware of the imminent danger now lurking in their midst: while sleeping, one of their group has quietly been devoured from inside out by a pathogenic fungus (Ophiocordyceps humbertii). Long fruiting bodies now grow from the carcass of the dead bee, eventually releasing copious spores that will colonize the fungi’s next victim. Panamá Oeste, Panama.
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  • Not all mushrooms have gills, as a view from underneath these delicate pore fungi (Favolaschia pustulosa) reveals. This species is widespread in Southeast Asia on decaying wood. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • There is a magic moment that exists between the end of day and the fall of night - in the Bornean rainforest this is signaled by the wailing of cicadas, with the deepening darkness abruptly revealing many things that were unseen in the light. Here, a cluster of Luminous Porecaps (Favolaschia manipularis) begin to show their innate greenish glow at dusk. It is believed that this bioluminescence plays a role in spore dispersal: in the still air of the rainforest understory these mushrooms gain and advantage by having wood-feeding insects (which are attracted to their light) carry the spore to new locations. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Madagascan Reed Frog (Heterixalus madagascariensis), possibly killed by chytrid fungus which has arrived in Madagascsar in recent years. Akanin'ny Nofy, Madagascar.
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  • Cup-fungus (Cookeina tricholoma). Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • It is probable that the luminescent quality of these small mushrooms (Favolaschia manipularis) serve to attract nocturnal insects which will aid in spore dispersal. Bako National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • In one of the most ancient instances of monoculture, Macrotermes termites cultivate gardens of Termitomyces fungus as a form of external digestion, enabling the break down plant lignin for their consumption. Here, soldiers and nymphs of M. gilvus attend their fungus comb, found deep within their subterranean nest. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Veiled Stinkhorn (Phallus indusiatus). Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Orange Faint Foot Mushroom (Heimiomyces tenuipes). Batang Ai, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A Cage Fungus (Pseudoclathrus cylindrosporus) grows in the rich decaying humus of Mount Kinabalu's montane rainforest. Flies, which are attracted to the strong putrid odor, disperse the spores which are found in a brown slime secreted on the inner surface of the receptaculum. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Unidentified mushrooms. Danum Valley Conservation Area, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A robber fly (family Asilidae) killed by parasitic fungus (Ophiocordyceps dipterigena). This fungus specializes in feeding on adult flies. After consuming the interior of its host the cream-colored fruiting bodies emerge and release spores to infect new insects. North Sulawesi, Indonesia.
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  • Veiled Stinkhorn (Phallus indusiatus). Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Fairy Inkcap (Coprinellus disseminatus). Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • In one of the most ancient instances of monoculture, Macrotermes termites cultivate gardens of Termitomyces fungus as a form of external digestion, enabling the break down plant lignin for their consumption. Here, soldiers and nymphs of M. gilvus attend their fungus comb, found deep within their subterranean nest. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Mushrooms (Amanita virgineoides). Tanjung Datu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • The luminescent nature of a cluster of seemingly ordinary mushrooms (Favolaschia manipularis) becomes revealed in the darkening dusk of the Borneo rainforest. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Luminous Porecap (Favolaschia manipularis), releasing spores. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Unseen since its original discovery in 1866 by Odoardo Beccarii, the elusive Thismia neptunis was found again in western Borneo in 2018. Like other mycoheterotrophic plants, it is unable to photosynthesize and derives its sustenance entirely from subterranean fungi. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Wax-tailed Planthopper (Pterodictya reticularis). The waxy filaments may serve to mimic an insect that has been keeled by parasitoid fungi, and thus dispel a predator's interest. Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.
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  • With a flair for home decor, the Vogelkop Bowerbird (Amblyornis inornata) produces perhaps the most artful creation of any animal, all in the name of romance. Here, a male bird shows off his collection of freshly collected flowers, fungi, beetle shells, and blue berries, neatly organized in piles laid out on a mat of meticulously cleaned moss. The twig hut in the back is not a nest - rather its construction is made entirely for the purpose of impressing a visiting female who will choose to mate with him only after a thorough inspection of his display. Arfak Mountains, West Papua, Indonesia (New Guinea).
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  • A metallic darkling beetle (Strongylium sp.), frequently found in association with decaying wood and fungi. Danum Valley Conservation Area, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Unseen since its original discovery in 1866 by Odoardo Beccarii, the elusive Thismia neptunis was found again in western Borneo in 2018. Like other mycoheterotrophic plants, it is unable to photosynthesize and derives its sustenance entirely from subterranean fungi. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Camouflage or a more cunning mimicry? Although cryptically patterned, this flatid planthopper from the Madagascan rainforest doesn't appear to blend particularly well against the tree bark on which it rests. However, a closer examination of its lace-like texture reveals that it is covered with filamentous white tufts, giving it a remarkable resemblance to an insect corpse that has been consumed by an entomopathogenic fungus. Given the abundance of such fungi in these wet forests, and their undesirability as food, this may be a clever strategy to deceive predators. Andasibe, Madagascar.
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