Chien C. Lee

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  • A Hardwicke's Woolly Bat (Kerivoula hardwickii) returns to its roost in a pitcher of Nepenthes hemsleyana. This recently discovered mutualism benefits both parties. The bats obtain a secure shelter safe from predators and rain, and the plants derive a significant portion of their nitrogen from the bat's droppings. Belait, Brunei Darussalam (Borneo).
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  • A Giant Forest Ant (Dinomyrmex gigas) receives a droplet of sweet honeydew from the abdomen of a juvenile leaf-footed bug (Notobitus sp.). The bugs, which obtain more sugar than they need from the plant juices they feed on, are fiercely guarded by the ants in return. Mutually beneficial trophobiotic relationships such as this are very advantageous in the competitive ecosystem of the rainforest. Danum Valley Conservation Area, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Platycerium madagascaeriense, one of the most bizarre endemic plants of Madagascar. Like other staghorn ferns, this species is strictly an epiphyte, growing among the canopy branches of tall trees. It is becoming increasingly rare and difficult to find in the wild because of widespread deforestation in the wet submontane forests of the east coast. The unusual ruffled texture of the shield fronds is probably an adaptation to allow passageways for ants to live underneath – a relationship that is mutually beneficial for both plant and insect. Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar.
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  • Colobopsis schmitzi ant on peristome of Nepenthes bicalcarata pitcher. Although these carnivorous plants trap most insects, this ant has a mutualistic relationship with the plant and is able to freely walk on the slippery surface. Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A giant ant plant (Myrmecodia sp.) growing is one of the tallest plants among the stunted vegetation of a highland sphagnum bog. Central Papua, Indonesia (New Guinea).
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  • Mountain Treeshrew (Tupaia montana) feeding at Nepenthes rajah.  Recent research has shown the the world's largest pitcher plant Nepenthes rajah is not exclusively carnivorous. Like the related N. lowii, this species attracts treeshrews by secreting nectar on the undersurface of the lid. These animals frequently leave their droppings in the pitcher, which serves as a valuable nitrogen source in their impoverished mountain habitat. Mount Kinabalu National Park, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Giant Forest Ants (Dinomyrmex gigas) tending to fulgorid planthoppers (Scamandra polychroma) for honeydew secretions. Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Rather than being carnivorous, this unusual pitcher plant (Nepenthes lowii) derives its nutrition from the droppings of the Mountain Treeshrew (Tupaia montana). The animals are attracted to the plant's copious nectar secretions, and inevitably leave their scat in the pitchers which are designed like a natural toilet receptacle. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Bulbophyllum patens with a visiting fruit fly (Bactrocera sp.) with a pollinarium attached to its back. Attracted by the floral scent, the flies act as pollinators but also benefit by acquiring specific chemicals which aid in the attraction of mates. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • An infrared camera trap reveals a secretive nocturnal visitor to the giant pitchers of Nepenthes rajah. The Kinabalu Rat (Rattus baluensis) is known only from the upper slopes of Mount Kinabalu in northern Borneo. New research has confirmed that this rodent shares a similar mutualistic relationship with these pitcher plants as the Mountain Treeshrew (Tupaia montana), by obtaining sweet nectar in exchange for their nitrogen-rich droppings. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Ants (Dolichoderus beccarii) protecting treehoppers from which they harvest honeydew. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Giant ant plant (Myrmecodia lamii). The alpine meadows of central New Guinea are dominated by giant ant plants such as this one. Due to their association with ants they are able to effectively acquire nutrients despite the poor soil. Lake Habbema, Highland Papua, Indonesia (New Guinea).
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  • Hydnophytum caminiferum. A closeup look at the chimney-like openings along the tuber of this unusual shrub. Although most Hydnophytum are ant-plants (myrmecophytes), it is still unknown what insects (or animals) this species plays host to. West Papua, Indonesia (New Guinea).
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  • Hydnophytum caminiferum. A closeup look at the chimney-like openings along the tuber of this unusual shrub. Although most Hydnophytum are ant-plants (myrmecophytes), it is still unknown what insects (or animals) this species plays host to. West Papua, Indonesia (New Guinea).
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  • Ants (Crematogaster sp.) tending to a butterfly caterpillar (Spindasis sp.). Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Few things exemplify the incredible complexity of rainforest ecosystems more than that of mutualisms between species. Here, a group of Giant Forest Ants (Dinomyrmex gigas) tend to a pair of lanternflies (Pyrops cultellatus), a relationship that has a net benefit for both species. The lanternflies, feeding directly from the phloem of the tree with their piercing straw-like mouthparts, harvest much more sugar-rich fluid than they actually need; the excess being excreted intermittently as a squirt of honeydew droplets from their abdomen. The ants position themselves directly behind and below the lanternflies and intercept these droplets with their heads, then consume the fluid and share it with their nestmates. In return, the ants guard the lanternflies and will ferociously attack any potential threat. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Mutualisms between ants and treehoppers are so effective that sometimes multiple species can occur together on the same plant without conflicts. Here, a Myrmecaria ant worker tends to a short-horned Tricentrus sp., while an extravagantly adorned Pyrgauchenia biuni feeds nearby. Both of these treehoppers feed on the plant phloem, tapping into the stem with their proboscis, and secrete excess sugary fluid which the ants gather. In return the ants not only fiercely protect the treehoppers from predators, but sometimes also assist in distributing the young hoppers to suitable branches on the host stem. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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