Chien C. Lee

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  • Few things exemplify the incredible complexity of rainforest ecosystems more than that of mutualisms between species. Here, a group of Giant Forest Ants (Dinomyrmex gigas) tend to a pair of lanternflies (Pyrops cultellatus), a relationship that has a net benefit for both species. The lanternflies, feeding directly from the phloem of the tree with their piercing straw-like mouthparts, harvest much more sugar-rich fluid than they actually need; the excess being excreted intermittently as a squirt of honeydew droplets from their abdomen. The ants position themselves directly behind and below the lanternflies and intercept these droplets with their heads, then consume the fluid and share it with their nestmates. In return, the ants guard the lanternflies and will ferociously attack any potential threat. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • With over 700 described species, the ant diversity of Borneo is extraordinarily rich. Although many ants defend themselves with toxic compounds or painful stings, some such as this species (Meranoplus mucronatus) are protected by sharp spines to deter predators. This group of workers is attending to a herd of extremely small planthopper nymphs, from which they take secreted honeydew. Deramakot Forest Reserve, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A Giant Forest Ant (Dinomyrmex gigas) receives a droplet of sweet honeydew from the abdomen of a juvenile leaf-footed bug (Notobitus sp.). The bugs, which obtain more sugar than they need from the plant juices they feed on, are fiercely guarded by the ants in return. Mutually beneficial trophobiotic relationships such as this are very advantageous in the competitive ecosystem of the rainforest. Danum Valley Conservation Area, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Four-clawed Gecko (Gehyra mutilata) attending a lanternfly (Pyrops whiteheadi) for secreted honeydew. Host tree is Pometia pinnata. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Ants (Crematogaster sp.) tending to a butterfly caterpillar (Spindasis sp.). Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • With over 700 described species, the ant diversity of Borneo is extraordinarily rich. Although many ants defend themselves with toxic compounds or painful stings, some such as this species (Meranoplus mucronatus) are protected by sharp spines to deter predators. This group of workers is attending to a herd of extremely small planthopper nymphs, from which they take secreted honeydew. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Giant Forest Ants (Dinomyrmex gigas) tending to fulgorid planthoppers (Scamandra polychroma) for honeydew secretions. Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Ants (Dolichoderus beccarii) protecting treehoppers from which they harvest honeydew. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A cockroach (Allacta sp.) attending to a Cixiid planthopper (Singabenna praestans), waiting for honeydew secretions. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Mutualisms between ants and treehoppers are so effective that sometimes multiple species can occur together on the same plant without conflicts. Here, a Myrmecaria ant worker tends to a short-horned Tricentrus sp., while an extravagantly adorned Pyrgauchenia biuni feeds nearby. Both of these treehoppers feed on the plant phloem, tapping into the stem with their proboscis, and secrete excess sugary fluid which the ants gather. In return the ants not only fiercely protect the treehoppers from predators, but sometimes also assist in distributing the young hoppers to suitable branches on the host stem. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Sap-feeding bugs such as this lanternfly (Pyrops whiteheadi) ingest large quantities of the nutrient-poor fluid, excreting the excess in the form of honeydew. Here a gecko (Gehyra mutilata) waits below the insect for an opportunistic meal of the sweet fluid. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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