Chien C. Lee

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  • Within the chamber of a giant pitcher plant (Nepenthes rajah), an iridescent Elephant Mosquito (Toxorhynchites sp.) emerges from its pupal case. These large mosquitoes do not suck blood, feeding instead on flower nectar and plant sap. The larvae are voracious predators of aquatic insects, including the young of other mosquitoes. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Hardwicke's Woolly Bat (Kerivoula hardwickii) roosting in a pitcher of Nepenthes hemsleyana. Belait, Brunei Darussalam (Borneo).
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  • A Hardwicke's Woolly Bat (Kerivoula hardwickii) returns to its roost in a pitcher of Nepenthes hemsleyana. This recently discovered mutualism benefits both parties. The bats obtain a secure shelter safe from predators and rain, and the plants derive a significant portion of their nitrogen from the bat's droppings. Belait, Brunei Darussalam (Borneo).
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  • As pretty as a bouquet of flowers, but with a sinister intent: a clump of Sun Pitchers (Heliamphora sarracenioides) advertises its lethal traps with bright colors and the offer of sweet nectar, amid the stunted vegetation of a tepui summit. Unwary insects that venture onto the inner surface of the pitcher easily lose their foothold and tumble into the water below where they are quickly drowned and digested by the plant. With annual rainfall sometimes exceeding four meters and virtually no mineral-rich soil available, nutrients are in scarce supply on Venezuela’s tepui mountains. This has fueled the diversification of many carnivorous plant species here, chief among them being the near-endemic genus Heliamphora with over 20 species. This species (H. sarracenioides) grows on the summit of only a single isolated tabletop mountain, accessible only by helicopter. Canaima National Park, Venezuela.
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes campanulata), a limestone lithophytic carnivorous plant, here growing on a cliff 250m above the rainforest canopy. Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • World within: the watery chamber of a carnivorous pitcher plant (Nepenthes ampullaria) hosts a myriad of tiny specialized creatures. An amplexing pair of the Matang Narrow-mouthed Frog (Microhyla nepenthicola), one of the world’s smallest amphibians, has visited the plant to deposit their eggs – they will breed nowhere else. They are flanked by a developing tadpole and the pupa of a predatory Elephant Mosquito (Toxorhynchites sp.). The plant benefits from everything entering the pitcher: detritus falling from the canopy above, insect prey that are drowned inside, or small visiting organisms like these that may help to break down the contents and leave their waste behind. Kubah National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Nepenthes villosa, a high-altitude carnivorous pitcher plant endemic to Mount Kinabalu and Mount Tamboyukon. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Nepenthes eymae, a pitcher plant with highly dimorphic pitchers found on the lower and upper parts of the vine.  Shown here are the upper pitchers.  It is endemic to the higher mountains of Central Sulawesi.
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes eymae), upper pitchers. Central Sulawesi, Indonesia.
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  • The bizarre gourd-shaped pitchers of this pitcher plant (Nepenthes lowii) are an unforgettable sight in the mossy forests of northern Borneo. It is has been shown that these function to trap animal droppings which serve as fertilizer for the plant. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Upper pitchers of Nepenthes murudensis. This rare pitcher plant is endemic to the summit region of the highest mountain in Sarawak, Gunung Murud.
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  • The upper pitcher of an undescribed carnivorous pitcher plant (Nepenthes sp.) from a remote mountain range in central New Guinea. Papua, Indonesia.
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes bicalcarata). Normally occuring only in shady peat swamp forests, this species occasionally grows in open heath-like peat bogs. It is endemic to Borneo. Sarawak, Malaysia.
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes andamana), a species adapted for seasonally dry grasslands. Phang Nga, Thailand.
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes hamata). Central Sulawesi, Indonesia.
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes nigra). Central Sulawesi, Indonesia.
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  • Nepenthes villosa, a high-altitude carnivorous pitcher plant endemic to Mount Kinabalu and Mount Tamboyukon. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes attenboroughii). Palawan, Philippines.
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes attenboroughii). Palawan, Philippines.
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  • Nepenthes undulatifolia, a newly described pitcher plant from the montane forests of Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia.
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes attenboroughii). Palawan, Philippines.
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  • Nepenthes hamata, a rare species of pitcher plant found only in the cool and damp mossy forests on steep ridges in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia.
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes attenboroughii). Palawan, Philippines.
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes pitopangii). Central Sulawesi, Indonesia.
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  • Nepenthes rajah. With perhaps the worlds largest pitchers, this carnivorous plant has been known to consume rats in the wild. Mount Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Rather than being carnivorous, this unusual pitcher plant (Nepenthes lowii) derives its nutrition from the droppings of the Mountain Treeshrew (Tupaia montana). The animals are attracted to the plant's copious nectar secretions, and inevitably leave their scat in the pitchers which are designed like a natural toilet receptacle. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Bush frog (Philautus nepenthophilus) in pitcher plant (Nepenthes mollis). Pulong Tau National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • This beautiful pitcher plant (Nepenthes ventricosa) is endemic to the mountains of Luzon Island. Aurora, Philippines.
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  • Nepenthes rowanae, one of only a few pitcher plant species endemic to Australia. This species grows only in ever-wet swamps of the Cape York Peninsula. Queensland, Australia.
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes edwardsiana). Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A bush frog (Philautus amoenus) emerges from it's watery shelter in the pitcher of Nepenthes × harryana. Mount Kinabalu. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Nepenthes mapuluensis, a rare pitcher plant endemic to the limestone mountains of East Kalimantan, Indonesia (Borneo).
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  • This unusual pitcher plant (Nepenthes lowii) derives its nutrition from the droppings of the Mountain Treeshrew (Tupaia montana). The animals are attracted to the plant's copious nectar secretions, and inevitably leave their scat in the pitchers which are designed like a natural toilet receptacle. Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes rafflesiana), upper pitcher. Brunei Darussalam (Borneo).
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  • The thin pitcher lid and complete lack of a peristome make this Sumatran pitcher plant (Nepenthes inermis) unique in the genus. It has unusually viscous pitcher fluid that may aid in trapping insects. West Sumatra, Indonesia.
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes sibuyanensis). This large pitcher plant is endemic to the ultramafic Mount Guiting-guiting on Sibuyan Island, Philippines.
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  • The poor soils of many of Borneo’s natural habitats are home to many unusual plants, the most famous of which are undoubtedly the carnivorous pitcher plants (Nepenthes). The slippery-rimmed traps are designed to lure and consume insects and even small animals to supplement the plant’s nutrition. One of the most extraordinary is Nepenthes veitchii, seen here growing up the side of a small tree, it’s pitchers open and ready for unsuspecting visitors. Maliau Basin Conservation Area, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • The lower pitcher of an undescribed carnivorous pitcher plant (Nepenthes sp.) from a remote mountain range in central New Guinea. Papua, Indonesia.
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  • A view from within the pitcher of this semi-carnivorous plant (Nepenthes ampullaria). Without a protective lid as in most other species of Nepenthes, the pitchers of N. ampullaria are exposed to rain as well as a continual fall of leaf litter from the forest canopy. In this way they are able to derive a significant portion of their nutrients from detritus. The dark objects on the inner rim are pupae of a Megaselia fly whose larvae feed on dead insects within the pitcher fluid. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • An enormous pitcher trap (Nepenthes rafflesiana) rests on the forest floor, an open but sinister invitation for wandering insects. This carnivorous plant has been known to occasionally catch and consume mice in its voluminous pitchers which can reach over 40cm in height. Belait, Brunei Darussalam (Borneo).
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  • A newly discovered pitcher plant (Nepenthes appendiculata) from montane mossy forest in Sarawak. This species is remarkable by the unusual glandular appendage found at the tip of the pitcher lid, which probably serves to attract insect prey. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes stenophylla), upper pitcher. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Widespread in New Guinea, this pitcher plant (Nepenthes maxima) exhibits a great diversity of pitcher forms and colors. Pictured here is a variety from the Anggi Lakes region of the Arfak Mountains. West Papua, Indonesia (New Guinea).
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes vogelii), upper pitcher. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes lowii). Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • With its fearsome clawed peristome, this pitcher plant (Nepenthes hamata) is one of the most spectacular and sought-after species in the entire genus. It is endemic to the higher mountains of Sulawesi where it grows on steep mossy ridges. Central Sulawesi, Indonesia.
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  • Nepenthes macrophylla. This rare montane pitcher plant is endemic only to the summit of Gunung Trusmadi, Malaysia's second highest mountain. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes campanulata). Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • One of the most beautiful of all pitcher plants, Nepenthes edwardsiana produces enormous cylindrical pitchers which are strikingly colored. It is endemic to the Mount Kinabalu region in northern Borneo.
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes veitchii), a terrestrial form of this usually epiphytic species.  Endemic to Borneo. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • This pitcher plant (Nepenthes neoguineensis) is endemic to New Guinea where it can be found on lateritic soils near the coast. Papua, Indonesia (New Guinea).
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes rafflesiana). Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Dung-eating pitcher plant (Nepenthes lowii), endemic to Borneo. Pulong Tau National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia.
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  • Formally described in 2009, this pitcher plant (Nepenthes bokorensis) is endemic to the Kampot province of southern Cambodia where it grows on rocky montane plateaus amid scrub and short forest.
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  • Compact clumps of the rare pitcher plant Nepenthes campanulata grow on the vertical walls of a limestone cliff nearly a hundred meters above the canopy of the rainforest. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes papuana). Digul River, South Papua, Indonesia (New Guinea).
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  • Endemic to Indonesian New Guinea, this pitcher plant (Nepenthes lamii) is known only from upper montane habitats, occasionally growing as high as 3500m where frosts occur. Highland Papua, Indonesia (New Guinea).
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  • Nepenthes argentii. With traps usually less than 3 cm in height this species is perhaps the smallest Nepenthes pitcher plant in the world. It is endemic to Mt. Guiting-guiting on Sibuyan Island, where it grows among stunted alpine vegetation. Romblon, Philippines.
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  • A non-climbing species, this pitcher plant (Nepenthes campanulata) grows only on the vertical faces of tall limestone cliffs in Borneo. It is so difficult to observe in habitat that it was once thought to be extinct. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Flask-shaped Pitcher Plant (Nepenthes ampullaria). Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes maxima). Central Sulawesi, Indonesia.
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  • Nepenthes ephippiata, a dung-eating pitcher plant endemic to Borneo. Esat Kalimantan, Indonesia.
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  • This pitcher plant (Nepenthes tomoriana) is endemic to Sulawesi where it can be found growing exclusively on ultrabasic rock substrates. South Sulawesi, Indonesia.
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  • Native only to peat swamp forests in Borneo, this pitcher plant (Nepenthes bicalcarata) is renowned for its fanged pitchers. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes jacquelineae). West Sumatra, Indonesia.
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  • A bird's eye view of one of the most unusual pitcher plants in Borneo: Nepenthes veitchii. Whilst most other Nepenthes utilize their looping tendrils to climb higher into vegetation, this species is unique in its 'tree-hugging' growth habit. Starting from the ground up, the thick leathery leaves wrap snugly around the side of the host tree, enabling the plant to reach high into the bright canopy. The beautiful hairy pitchers can reach over 20cm in length and with their slippery wide peristome (toothed rim) they are efficient insect traps. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • This unusual species of pitcher plant (Nepenthes klossii) bears a concealed opening to deceive insect prey. It is extremely rare, only growing in remote high elevaton swampy forests in New Guinea. Papua, Indonesia.
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  • The toilet-shaped upper pitchers of this carnivorous pitcher plant (Nepenthes jamban) are exceedingly funnel-shaped and filled with a thick mucilaginous liquid which may aid in prey capture. It is endemic to a single mountain in North Sumatra, Indonesia.
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  • This peculiar dwarf species of pitcher plant (Nepenthes glabrata) is found only in the mountains of Central Sulawesi.
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  • Nepenthes alba. This endemic pitcher plant grows only along the quartz ridge of the summit of Gunung Tahan, Peninsular Malaysia's highest mountain. Kelantan, Malaysia.
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes northiana). Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes tentaculata). East Kalimantan, Indonesia (Borneo).
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  • Pitcher plant (Nepenthes flava). North Sumatra, Indonesia.
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  • Mountain Treeshrew (Tupaia montana) feeding at Nepenthes rajah.  Recent research has shown the the world's largest pitcher plant Nepenthes rajah is not exclusively carnivorous. Like the related N. lowii, this species attracts treeshrews by secreting nectar on the undersurface of the lid. These animals frequently leave their droppings in the pitcher, which serves as a valuable nitrogen source in their impoverished mountain habitat. Mount Kinabalu National Park, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A miniature narrow-mouthed frog (Microhyla cf. borneensis) seeks the moist shelter within a carnivorous plant (Nepenthes bicalcarata) resting on the Borneo rainforest floor. Normally a deadly pitfall trap, this plant's pitcher has been chewed open on the side by a small mammal, probably in an attempt to feed on the trapped insects (or fluids) inside. Several species of Nepenthes such as this are used as tadpole nurseries for certain frogs, some of which will breed nowhere else. Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • ore than just a death trap: the watery chamber of this carnivorous pitcher plant (Nepenthes ampullaria) in the Borneo rainforest is home to a brood of tiny tadpoles. One of the world's smallest frogs (Microhyla nepenthicola), this species will lay its eggs nowhere else, making them completely dependent on the plants. Here, the tadpoles grow in relative safety, except when they are faced with other water-dwelling predators including huge carnivorous mosquitoes. After several weeks they will mature into tiny froglets and make their escape from the pitcher. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • The smallest frog in Borneo at scarcely over 1 cm in length, a male Matang Narrow-mouthed Frog (Microhyla nepenthicola), perches on the lip of a pitcher plant (Nepenthes ampullaria) where he will entice a female to lay her eggs. These tiny frogs are so far known to breed only in the water-filled chambers of certain pitcher plants, and their small size may be an adaptation for this lifestyle. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • The pitchers of this species (Nepenthes ampullaria) usually grow clustered on the forest floor at the base of the plant where they serve to trap both unwary wandering insects as well as falling leaf litter. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Just a few millimeters in length, a tiny froglet (Microhyla nepenthicola) makes its first climb out of the watery chamber of the pitcher plant in which it was born. This species is exclusively reliant on pitcher plants for depositing their eggs. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Near the summit of Gunung Murud (Sarawak's highest mountain), an newly described species of tiny bush frog (Philautus nepenthophilus) hides within the fluid of a carnivorous pitcher plant (Nepenthes mollis), apparently unaffected by the plant's digestive juices therein. Phytotelmata (water bodies held by plants) provide living quarters and breeding grounds for many unique creatures which are completely dependent on them. Pulong Tau National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A tiny undescribed species of dwarf toad (Pelophryne sp.) perches on the lid of a carnivorous pitcher plant (Nepenthes villosa) high in the mossy forests of Mount Tambuyukon in northern Borneo. It is suspected that these toads and other amphibians utilize the water-filled pitchers in which to breed, but the remoteness of these locations makes this behavior difficult to study, and their exact relationship remains unconfirmed. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Pitcher plant (Heliamphora uncinata). Canaima National Park, Bolivar, Venezuela.
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  • Colobopsis schmitzi ant on peristome of Nepenthes bicalcarata pitcher. Although these carnivorous plants trap most insects, this ant has a mutualistic relationship with the plant and is able to freely walk on the slippery surface. Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A predatory Toxorhynchites mosquito emerges from the liquid in a pitcher of Nepenthes ampullaria. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Scat of Mountain Treeshrew (Tupaia montana) on the peristome of Nepenthes rajah. This will be washed into the pitcher with rain where it becomes a vital source of nutrients for the plant. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Bush frog (Philautus nepenthophilus) in pitcher plant (Nepenthes mollis). Pulong Tau National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Pitcher plant natural hybrid (Heliamphora nutans x glabra). Canaima National Park, Venezuela.
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  • An unusually hairy pitcher plant (Heliamphora minor var. pilosa), endemic to Auyan Tepui. Canaima National Park, Bolivar, Venezuela.
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  • An infrared camera trap reveals a secretive nocturnal visitor to the giant pitchers of Nepenthes rajah. The Kinabalu Rat (Rattus baluensis) is known only from the upper slopes of Mount Kinabalu in northern Borneo. New research has confirmed that this rodent shares a similar mutualistic relationship with these pitcher plants as the Mountain Treeshrew (Tupaia montana), by obtaining sweet nectar in exchange for their nitrogen-rich droppings. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Heliamphora sarracenioides, a carnivorous pitcher plant endemic to a single tepui mountain in Venezuela. Bright colors and the offer of nectar attract insect prey. Canaima National Park, Venezuela.
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  • Heliamphora pulchella, a carnivorous pitcher plant endemic to several tepui mountains in Venezuela. Canaima National Park, Venezuela.
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  • Pitcher plant (Heliamphora huberi). Canaima National Park, Venezuela.
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  • Heliamphora pulchella, a carnivorous pitcher plant endemic to the summits of only a few remote tepuis (tabletop mountains) in southeastern Venezuela. Insects which fall inside are prevented from escaping by the downward-pointing bristles and quickly drown. Canaima National Park, Venezuela.
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  • Pitcher plant (Heliamphora purpurascens). Canaima National Park, Venezuela.
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  • Hardwicke's Woolly Bat (Kerivoula hardwickii) at a pitcher of Nepenthes hemsleyana (N. baramensis) where it roosts. Belait, Brunei Darussalam (Borneo).
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  • Nepenthes distillatoria, a Sri Lankan endemic and the only pitcher plant species occurring on the island.
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  • Nepenthes pervillei, the only pitcher plant occurring in the Seychelles, where it grows on massive granitic rock outcrops on just two islands amid a crystal clear aquamarine sea with white sand beaches. The plants grow in such luxuriant profusion that you can smell the sweet alluring scent of their pitchers that are dripping with nectar. Long considered one of the most primitive and aberrant of all Nepenthes, N. pervillei was once placed in its own genus based on its unusual seeds and flowers.
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  • Nepenthes tenax, a newly distinguished pitcher plant endemic to northern Queensland, Australia.
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  • Nepenthes distillatoria, a Sri Lankan endemic and the only pitcher plant species occurring on the island.
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  • Nepenthes hamata.  Given the right conditions, many species of Nepenthes have the capacity to sprout aerial rosettes on their climbing stems, so that the pitchers are suspended in mid-air.  This species is endemic to the mountains of Sulawesi.
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