Chien C. Lee

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  • Few warning signals in nature are as blatant as the colors of the Aquatic Coral Snake (Micrurus surinamensis), and for good reason: it possesses a highly potent neurotoxic venom. Unique among South American elapid snakes, its venom appears to be specialized for its favored prey of fish and eels, although can undoubtedly be fatal for mammals as well. They are, however, very non-aggressive and bite only when attacked or accidentally stepped on – the latter of which is rare thanks to their gaudy coloration. Yasuní National Park, Ecuador.
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  • The Bullet Ant (Paraponera clavata), a big reason why hikers in the Amazonian rainforest always proceed with trepidation when stepping off the trail into thick vegetation. One of the largest ants in the world, this species is infamous for its ferocious sting which some (unfortunate) individuals consider equivalent in pain to being shot. The ant's sting contains a neurotoxic venom and has been rated by biologists as the only perfect "4+" on the Schmidt Sting Pain Index, making it the most painful of all insect stings. Coca, Ecuador.
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  • Although the Banded Coral Snake (Calliophis intestinalis) is not aggressive, it possesses an extremely toxic venom like other Elapids. When disturbed it displays its red tail and the brightly colored bands on its undersurface which serve as a warning signal to would-be predators. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • The bold coloration of the Red-headed Krait (Bungarus flaviceps) is a warning to would-be predators of the highly potent venom it possesses. This large elapid feeds primarily on other reptiles including lizards and snakes. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • The Fire-lipped Keelback (Rhabdophis murudensis) is a rare snake known only from the higher mountains of northern Borneo.  When threatened, it has the remarkable ability to exude a white milky venom from the back of its neck as a defensive mechanism. Gunung Kinabalu National Park, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Like all cobras, this juvenile Equatorial Spitting Cobra (Naja sumatrana), also called the Black Spitting Cobra and Sumatran Spitting Cobra, inflates its hood when approached by a potential threat. As an additional defense this species is also capable of spitting venom at distances of up to 1 meter, which is typically aimed with great accuracy at the eyes of its adversary. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Sabah Bamboo Pitviper (Trimeresurus sabahi). Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Flat-nosed Pitviper (Craspedocephalus puniceus). West Java, Indonesia.
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  • Bark Scorpion (Centruroides bicolor). Osa Peninsula, Puntarenas, Costa Rica.
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  • Usambara Eyelash Viper (Atheris ceratophora). Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania.
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  • One of the most dangerous snakes in New Guinea: the Smooth-scaled Death Adder (Acanthophis laevis). Like vipers, these snakes are thick-bodied with a wide triangular head and are relatively slow moving, preferring to lie in wait for suitable prey to venture within striking distance. However, their resemblance to vipers (and true adders) is only superficial - they are actually members of the family Elapidae, which includes cobras, kraits, and coral snakes. Papua, Indonesia (New Guinea).
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  • Flat-nosed Pitviper (Craspedocephalus puniceus). West Java, Indonesia.
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  • Godman's Montane Pit Viper (Cerrophidion godmani). El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve, Chiapas, Mexico.
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  • Bornean Keeled Green Pit Viper (Tropidolaemus subannulatus). Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A Pilbara Death Adder (Acanthophis wellsi) from the desert regions of Western Australia. Although superficially resembling vipers by their stout body and habit of ambushing prey, death adders are actually elapids and more closely related to cobras, kraits, and coral snakes. Cape Range National Park, Western Australia.
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  • The beautiful Schultze's Pit Viper (Trimeresurus schultzei) is endemic to Palawan and offshore islands. Palawan, Philippines.
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  • With an adult size usually under 405g, the Pygmy Slow Loris (Nycticebus pygmaeus) is the smallest of all lorises. It is strictly nocturnal and survives on a diet of insects and fruit. Cuc Phuong National Park, Vietnam.
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  • Still wet from a passing rainstorm, a Sabah Bamboo Pitviper (Trimeresurus sabahi) lies in ambush on the side of a tree, waiting for the approach of suitable prey. By maintaining a low metabolism and sometimes remaining in a single position for weeks at a time, tropical vipers such as this can survive by feeding as infrequently as once every few months. Mount Kinabalu National Park, Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Banded Malaysian Coralsnake (Calliophis intestinalis). Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Ecuadorian Toadheaded Pitviper (Bothrocophias campbelli). Mashpi Amagusa Reserve, Pichincha, Ecuador.
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  • Illuminated by a stray beam of sunlight, a Hognosed Viper (Porthidium nasutum) lies in wait on the forest floor, providing a reminder of why hikers are advised to wear high boots when walking in the Chocó rainforest off trails. These habitats are some of the richest in all South America, with a high number of endemic reptiles that are separated from their Amazonian relatives by the Andes mountain range. Esmeraldas, Ecuador.
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  • Gaboon Viper (Bitis gabonica). Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania.
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  • Terciopelo (Bothrops asper). Cartago, Costa Rica.
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  • Vogel’s Pit Viper (Trimeresurus vogeli). Bach Ma National Park, Vietnam.
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  • Hump-nosed Viper (Hypnale zara). Sinharaja National Park, Sri Lanka.
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  • Like an eager fisherman, a Madagascan Net-casting Spider (Deinopis madagascariensis) waits patiently above the stem of a small bush, ready to ensnare a passing insect with its sticky web. Sometimes called ‘Ogre-faced Spiders’ due to their enormous front eyes, these nocturnal predators have highly acute vision and are able to detect small movements even in complete darkness. Their method of capturing prey is unique among all spiders: the web they spin for this purpose is composed of highly stretchable, sticky fibers – it is swept over an insect in a blindingly fast scooping motion of the front legs, with the resulting struggling prey quickly immobilized by a venomous bite. Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar.
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  • When threatened, the harmless Ceylonese Pipe Snake (Cylindrophis maculatus) employs a clever trick: it flattens its tail and raises it to expose the bright checkered pattern underneath. Not only does this divert attacks away from its vulnerable head (which remains hidden beneath), but these bold color patterns resemble venomous coral snakes (Calliophis sp.). Central Province, Sri Lanka.
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  • Although each armed with stinging bristles, a brood of juvenile nettle caterpillars (Limacodidae) enhances their defense by forming a tight grouping. Each caterpillar faces outward, presenting a wall of venomous spines to their enemies. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • The Sumatran Pit Viper (Trimeresurus sumatranus) is a highly venomous species, ranging throughout much of Southeast Asia.  Like other green vipers it is an arboreal ambush predator. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Raising its wings in an aggressive and intimidating display, this large raspy cricket (Capnogryllacris borneoensis) is merely bluffing - it has no venomous sting or chemical defense. Distinguished in their own family (Gryllacrididae), raspy crickets are strictly nocturnal; by day they hide in leaf shelters which are constructed with the aid of silk threads secreted from their mouthparts. Kubah National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Rarely encountered due to their subterranean habits, Dwarf Pipe Snakes (Anomochilidae) are very little studied and are known from only a small handful of specimens. In addition to their bold coloration (which may serve to mimic venomous coral snakes), they also a false head on their tail to deflect attacks away from their true head. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Sometimes referred to as the ‘Trees of Life’, baobabs (Adansonia spp.) provide food and shelter for many species of animals, particularly those surviving in the brutally hot and arid climate of Madagascar’s southwest. Here, a Southwestern Night Snake (Ithycyphus oursi) takes shelter during the heat of the day beneath a fissure in the bark of a Za Baobab (A. za). These hiding spots are sometimes shared with geckos, scorpions and Madagascar’s famous hissing cockroaches. This snake, incidentally, is one of the few venomous species on the island; while perhaps not dangerous to humans its bite has been observed to cause paralysis in chameleons. Amboasary, Madagascar.
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  • Rarely encountered due to their subterranean habits, Dwarf Pipe Snakes (Anomochilidae) are very little studied and are known from only a small handful of specimens. In addition to their bold coloration (which may serve to mimic venomous coral snakes), they also a false head on their tail to deflect attacks away from their true head. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Despite its appearance and usually fearsome disposition, the Dusky Mock Viper (Psammodynastes pulverulentus) possesses only a weak venom and is not dangerous to humans. It feeds on lizards and frogs. Sabah, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • With highly toxic chemical defenses ranging from benzoquinones to cyanide compounds, millipedes are generally avoided by most predators. However, in nature no matter how well protected you are, everyone has their Achilles' heel. In this case we have the Ectrichodiinid bugs, better known as ' Millipede Assassins'. These specialized hunters feed exclusively on millipedes, stabbing them with a stout proboscis, immobilizing them with venom, and are undeterred by their prey's thick armor and toxins. It is suspected that some species may actually be able to sequester the chemicals of the millipede to incorporate into their own defenses, but this remains to be studied. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • A fast and aggressive predator, this Malaysian Cherry-red Centipede (Scolopendra dehaani) can reach over 20cm in length and can consume prey as large as a mouse. Like other centipedes, its first pair of legs are modified to deliver a painful venom which is effective both in subduing prey and in defense. Penang, Malaysia.
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  • The Mangrove Cat Snake (Boiga dendrophila) is a widespread inhabitant of coastal and riverine forests in Southeast Asia, where it hunts for small mammals, reptiles (including other snakes), and birds. A rear-fanged snake, research has revealed that its venom is specifically tailored to affect birds and is relatively ineffective in subduing mammals (although bites in humans can cause pain and inflammation). This is the first known occurrence of a bird-specific toxin. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • The Three-striped Ground Snake (Pseudoxyrhopus tritaeniatus) is certainly one of the most beautiful of Madagascan endemic snakes, but why is it colored this way? Bold red stripes are frequently used as an aposematic warning, indicating to other animals of severe danger. It is curious then that not only is this species completely non-venomous but there are in fact no other dangerous snakes in Madagascar that this could possibly be a mimic of. An interesting theory points to the co-occurrence of large red toxic millipedes in the same forests – could these actually be a mimicry model for this snake? On an island legendary for its biological curiosities, nothing seems beyond the realm of possibility. Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar.
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  • Although completely non-venomous, the Painted Mock Viper (Psammodynastes pictus) defends itself by aggressively striking if threatened. It often hunts aquatic animals such as frogs and fish by perching on a low branch over the surface of the water. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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  • Although completely non-venomous, the Painted Mock Viper (Psammodynastes pictus) defends itself by aggressively striking if threatened. It often hunts aquatic animals such as frogs and fish by perching on a low branch over the surface of the water. Central Kalimantan, Indonesia (Borneo).
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  • The Black-headed Cat Snake (Boiga nigriceps) is an arboreal predator of birds and other snakes.  Although it has one of the most potent venoms of all colubrid snakes, it possesses only rear fangs and is not an aggressive species. Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo).
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